yC-NRLF 

B    3   113   &B3 


EUROPE 


lO^WINSLOW 


DCHEATH 
e^COMPANY 

BOSTON 


If  OF  THE 

[f         UNIVERSITY 


GEOGRAPHY  READERS— IV 


EUROPE 


BY 

1.   O.    WINSLOW 


BOSTON,    U.S.A. 

D.  C.  HEATH  &  CO,,  PUBLISHERS 

1910 


wmsLOW's 

GEOGRAPHY   EEADERS 


The  Earth  and  Its  People 

The  United  States 

OaR  American  Nekjhboks 

Europe 

Distant  Countkies 

Copyright,  1910,  by 
D.   C.    HEATH   &   CO. 

EDUCATION  LIBR. 


PREFACE 


The  purpose  of  this  series  is  to  occupy  middle  ground 
between  the  customary  text-books  and  geographical  readers, 
and  to  combine  the  essential  advantages  of  both. 

The  two  extremes,  whether  employed  separately  or  to- 
gether, fail  to  meet  the  practical  needs  of  the  average  school- 
room. The  text-books  adhere  to  the  scientific  method,  at  a 
sacrifice  of  the  practical  or  pedagogical  method.  The  teacher 
finds  it  difficult  either  to  assign  a  definite  lesson  for  study 
from  the  books  or  to  use  them  for  class  exercises  in  reading 
and  discussion.  In  their  completeness  the  text-books  con- 
tain so  much  that  selection  is  difficult,  and  the  attempt  to 
teach  the  whole  is  disastrous. 

Geographical  readers,  in  the  form  of  stories  of  travel, 
go  so  far  to  the  other  extreme  that  they  also  fall  outside 
of  the  daily  task  of  the  geography  teacher.  Courses  of 
study  very  properly  call  for  definite  concepts  and  facts. 
After  serious  attention  has  been  given  to  these,  there  is  but 
little  time  to  spare  in  the  regular  curriculum  for  lighter 
reading. 

There  is  need  of  books  that  shall  select  the  essentials  and 
set  them  forth  in  such  an  explicit  and  straightforward  man- 
ner that  they  may  be  easily  used,  both  for  preparatory  read- 
ing and  for  study  and  recitation.  It  is  the  design  of  these 
books  to  supply  that  want.  Since  they  occupy  a  unique 
position,  they  should  not  be  judged  according  to  existing 
standards,  but  according  to  practical  needs. 

Care  lias  been  taken  to  make  the  series  genuinely  progres- 
sive.    Each  book  builds  upon  the  foundation  laid  in  previous 


ivi5'r'?0f 


>/ 


iv  PREFACE 

books.  Such  topics  as  have  been  treated  in  earlier  books  are 
omitted,  or  briefly  mentioned  for  the  purpose  of  review,  or 
treated  from  a  more  mature  standpoint.  In  choice  of  words 
and  style  there  is  a  gradual  advancement  through  the  series 
corresponding  to  the  advancing  ability  of  pupils  of  the 
several  grades. 

Unusual  attention  has  been  given  to  tlie  industrial  and 
commercial  aspects  of  the  subject,  in  the  belief  that  these 
are  of  fundamental  importance  and  of  natural  interest  to 
children.  The  fact  that  political  geography,  or  the  geog- 
raj^y  of  locations,  is  wrought  out  in  close  connection  with 
such  industrial  and  commercial  development  renders  it  more 
significant  and  more  easily  remembered. 

Topics  of  fundamental  importance  are  fully  explained  in 
the  text,  but  many  minor  points,  which  may  be  easily  ascer- 
tained or  inferred  by  pupils,  are  reserved  and  given  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter,  either  in  the  form  of  questions  or  brief 
statements  accompanied  by  questions.  These  exercises, 
supplemented  by  map  sketching  and  other  work  that  is 
here  and  there  suggested,  will  provide  definite  lessons  for 
the  study  period,  Avhich  many  teachers  find  it  difficult  to 
arrange. 

The  review  questions  relate  to  principal  points  explained 
in  the  text,  and  may  be  employed  either  for  the  daily  assign- 
ment of  lessons  or  for  occasional  review.  It  is  believed  that 
these  questions,  togetber  with  the  exercises  given  in  connec- 
tion with  each  chapter,  include  as  much  as  pupils  of  ele- 
mentary grades  should  be  expected  to  learn. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Europe •        .  1 

Physical  Features  and  Climate 1 

Tlie  People  of  Europe 6 

The  British  Isles 13 

England 18 

Cities  and  Interesting  Localities 25 

Scotland 33 

Ireland 37 

Fkaxce 44 

Industries  and  Cities 51 

The  Netherlands 55 

Belgium 63 

Spain  and  Portugal 68 

Industries  and  Cities 74 

Norway 82 

Sweden 90 

Denmark 95 

Germany 99 

Industries  and  Cities 107 

Switzerland  ............  114 

Italy 124 

Industries  and  Cities 131 

Austria-Hungary 139 

Russia 146 

Industries  and  Cities 153 

Turkey 161 

Smaller  Balkan  Countries 169 

Appendix         ............  178 

Index  and  Pronouncing  Vocabulary 181 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

Commercial  Map  of  the  AYorld  (colored)        ....        facing  1 

Relief  Map  of  Europe 3 

Gulf  Stream 4 

Europe  (colored) 7 

Western  Europe  (colored) 15 

British  Coal  Fields 20 

Central  Europe  (colored) 85 


IV 
EUROPE 


EUROPE 

Of  all  the  great  bodies  of  land  on  the  earth,  Europe  is 
in  many  respects  the  most  important.  It  has  taken  a 
greater  part  than  any  other  continent  in  the  civilization 
of  the  human  race.  We  justly  regard  the  United  States 
as  the  equal  of  any  other  nation  in  the  intelligence  and 
progress  of  its  people,  but  civilization  in  America  is  com- 
paratively recent.  Not  very  long  ago  its  inhabitants 
were  savages,  whereas  Europe  for  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  years  has  been  the  home  of  enlightened 
people. 

Because  the  ancestors  of  most  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  United  States  once  lived  in  Enrope,  the  high  cliar- 
acter  and  great  success  of  our  people  are  in  part  due  to 
that  continent,  and  this  fact  renders  a  study  of  Europe 
especially  interesting  to  us. 

I.  Physical  Features  and  Climate 

Although  Europe  and  Asia  really  form  one  body  of 
land,  to  which  the  name  Eurasia  has  been  given,  Europe 
differs  from  Asia  so  greatly  in  respect  to  natnral  fea- 
tures and  inhabitants  that  it  is  most  convenient  to 
consider  it  separately. 

We  shall  do  well  to  give  attention,  first,  to  the  moun- 
tain systems,  valleys,  and  plains  ;  to  the  rivers  and  other 
bodies  of  water ;  and  to  heat  and  cold,  and  wind  and 
rain,  because  the  physical  features  and  climate  of  any 


2  EUROPE 

part  of  the  earth  are  eitlier  an  assistance  or  a  hindrance 
to  the  welfare  of  the  people. 

There  are  in  Europe,  as  in  America,  mountains  that 
are  very  ancient  and  others  that  have  been  more  recently 
formed.  The  comparatively  low  mountains  in  Norway, 
Scotland,  and  other  parts  of  northwestern  Europe  are  the 
remains  of  an  ancient  system  like  the  Appalachian  Sys- 
tem in  the  United  States.  The  more  lofty  Alps,  Pyrenees, 
and  Caucasus  Mountains  in  the  southern  part  correspond 
more  nearly  to  the  systems  in  the  western  part  of 
North  America. 

In  the  central  and  northeastern  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent there  are  vast,  gently  sloping  lowlands  across 
which  rivers  flow  in  various  directions. 

During  the  Glacial  Period,  when  the  ice  sheet  covered 
a  part  of  North  America,  a  similar  sheet  covered  north- 
ern Europe  and  produced  effects  like  those  in  our  own 
country.  Rocks  were  ground  into  soil,  and  numerous 
ponds,  lakes,  and  waterfalls  were  formed. 

The  climate  in  the  western  part  of  Europe  is  much 
milder  than  that  in  the  eastern  part  of  North  America 
at  a  corresponding  latitude.  This  is  due  chiefly  to  the 
direction  of  the  wind.  Most  of  Europe,  like  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  is  in  the  region  of 
prevailing  westerly  or  southwesterly  winds.  Since  in 
winter  the  ocean  does  not  become  cooled  so  fast  as  the 
land,  the  wind  that  reaches  Europe  after  blowing  over 
the  surface  of  the  Atlantic  renders  the  climate  milder 
than  it  otherwise  would  be. 

This  modifying  influence  of  the  ocean  is  somewhat 
increased  by  a  current  of  warm  water  that  moves  from 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES   AND    CLniATE 


the  tropical  regions  across  the  Atlantic  and  gives  the 
waters  near  the  western  coast  of  Europe  a  higher 
temperature. 

There  are  similar  currents  in  various    parts  of    the 
world.     They  are  probably  caused  by  prevailing  winds. 


EUROPE 


Wherever  wind  blows  across  the  surface  of  water  it 
tends  to  push  the  water  along,  and  in  those  parts  of  the 
ocean  where  it  blows  in  certain  directions  the  greater 
part  of  the  time,  there  are  naturally  movements  of  the 

water  in  the  same 
directions.  As  the 
directions  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds  differ  in 
different  regions,  so 
the  movements  of  the 
water  have  different 
directions,  and  in 
some  places  great  cir- 
cular currents,  or  ed- 
dies, are  formed  in  the 


ocean. 


The  Gulf  stream 

By  mingling  the  warm  waters  of  the  tropics  with  the 
cold  waters  of  the  temperate  and  polar  regions,  these 
currents  decrease  the  differences  in  temperature  in  the 
ocean  and  have  some  effect  in  preventing  extremes  in 
climate. 

The  current  that  affects  the  climate  of  western 
Europe  passes  into  the  Atlantic  from  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, and  is  therefore  called  the  Gulf  Stream.  As  it 
passes  between  Florida  and  Cuba  on  its  way  from  the 
Gulf,  it  is  about  fifty  miles  wide  and  several  hundred 
feet  deep.  Its  movement  across  the  Atlantic  is  only  a 
few  miles  per  day. 

The  climate  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  as  far  north  as  New  York  City,  is  rendered 
milder   in    winter    by    the    Gulf   Stream.      Along   the 


PHYSICAL   FEATURES   AND    CLBIATE  5 

American  coast  farther  north  a  stream  called  the  Arctic 
Current,  or  the  Labrador  Current,  brings  cold  water  and 
floating  ice  from  the  Arctic  regions  and  adds  to  the 
severity  of  the  winters.  When  the  Pilgrims  came  to 
America,  they  landed  at  a  point  farther  south  than 
England  and  expected  to  find  the  climate  warmer,  but 
were  disappointed  in  finding  it  colder  instead. 

In  summer  the  surface  of  the  land  becomes  heated 
more  than  the  water,  and  the  westerly  winds  render  the 
summers  of  western  Europe  cooler. 

This  effect  is  similar  to  that  produced  by  westerly 
winds  in  the  western  parts  of  the  United  States.  In 
the  central  and  eastern  parts  of  both  Europe  and  the 
United  States  it  is  much  colder  in  winter  and  warmer 
in  summer  than  farther  west,  because  the  temperature 
of  the  wind  becomes  changed  by  the  temperature  of  the 
land  over  which  it  blows. 

In  the  central  part  of  the  United  States,  since  there 
are  no  mountain  ranges  running  east  and  west,  the 
climate  in  the  south  is  rendered  cooler,  and  that  in  the 
north  warmer,  by  winds  from  the  north  and  the  south. 
The  mountains  extending  across  southern  Europe  pre- 
vent such  a  free  movement  of  the  air ;  hence  there  is  a 
marked  difference  in  the  climate  of  the  regions  north 
and  south  of  the  mountains. 


1     state  the  direction  of  Europe  from  each  of  the  other  continents. 

2.  How  does  the  coast  line  of  Europe  differ  from  that  of  South 
America? 

3.  What  oceans  border  on  Europe? 

4.  Name  the  large  seas  and  bays  that  border  on  Europe. 

5.  Locate  th.e  following  mountain  ranges:     Alps;    Pyrenees;    Cau- 
casus; Ural;  Balkan;  Carpathian. 


EUROPE 


6.  Name  three  rivers  that  rise  in  the  Alps.      Into  what  bodies  of 
water  do  they  flow? 

7.  About  one  fourth  of  the  river  water  of  Europe   flows  into  the 
Black  Sea.     Name  several  large  rivers  that  flow  into  that  sea. 

8.  What  large  river  flows  into  the  Caspian  Sea? 

9.    What  part  of  the  coast  of 

North  America  is  about  as  far  north 
as  the  British  Isles? 

10.  Sketch  an  outline  map  of 
Europe  and  indicate  the  names  of 
the  large  bodies  of  water  that  border 
upon  it. 

2.  The  People  of  Europe 
The  entire  continent  of 
Etn-ope  is  not  very  much 
larger  than  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  divided 
into  many  separate  coun- 
tries whose  inhabitants 
speak    various     languages. 


During  the  long  period 
since  the  earliest  times  of 
which  we  have  knowledge 
there  have  been  many 
changes  among  the  peoples  of  Europe.  Most  of  the 
present  inhabitants  are  branches  of  the  White,  or  Cauca- 
sian, Race.  It  is  believed  that  the  ancestors  of  all  these 
peoples  were  once  united  and  spoke  the  same  lan- 
guage. It  is  also  generally  believed  that  the  original 
home  of  the  race  was  in  Asia,  and  that  branches 
of  the  family  gradually  emigrated  westward  into 
Europe. 

One  of  these  divisions,  known  as  the  Greeks,  occupied 
a   peninsula    extending    into   the    Mediterranean    Sea. 


Inhabitants  of  Northern  Europe 
more  than  2000  Years  Ago 

The  clothing,  weapons,  and  ornaments  are 
copied  from  discoveries  in  the  peat  of  Denmark 


EUROPE 


The  Greeks  also  colonized  numerous  islands  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. In  their  southern  home  they  became 
highly  civilized.  The  works  of  art  and  literature  that 
they  produced  have  never  been  surpassed,  and  are  still 
studied  and  admired.  In  their  government,  however, 
there  was  not  sufficient  strength.  Their  country  was 
divided  into  small  states  that  were  not  firmly  united, 
and  they  were  finally  conquered  by  other  nations. 

The    Romans,  who    dwelt   in   Italy,  were   the   most 

powerful  peo- 
ple of  the  an- 
cient world. 
They  formed 
a  strong  and 
united  govern- 
ment. They 
produced  a 
system  of  laws 
and    enforced 

them  wisely.  They  gave  great  attention  to  military 
discipline  and  maintained  such  mighty  armies  that  no 
foreign  power  could  stand  against  them.  They  con- 
quered all  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  and  many  barbarous  tribes,  and  all  these  were  united 
in  one  vast  empire,  with  Rome  for  its  capital. 

It  was  a  great  advantage  to  these  various  peoples  to 
be  brought  under  Roman  rule.  They  all  learned  from 
the  Romans  a  respect  for  law  and  good  government. 
The  Romans,  like  the  Greeks,  were  highly  educated, 
and  the  benefits  of  their  education  were  imparted,  in 
some    degree,    to   the    peoples   whom   they   conquered. 


A  Greek  Temple 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   EUROPE 


Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  was  the  introduction  of 
Christianity.  The  Romans  at  first  persecuted  the 
Christians,  but  after  about  three  centuries  the  Christian 
religion  was 
adopted  by  the 
Roman  govern- 
ment and  was 
introduced  into 
all  parts  of  the 
empire. 

After  a  time 
the  power  of  the 
Romans  began 
to  decline.  With 
their  increase  in 
riches  the  rulers 
and  leading  citi- 
zens gradually 
became  less  pa- 
triotic and  lived 


The  Appian  Way  — a  celebrated  Roman  Road 


more  at  ease.  They  had  conquered  all  the  tribes 
as  far  north  as  the  Rhine  and  Danube  rivers,  but 
beyond  those  rivers  there  were  Teutonic  tribes  in 
the  western  part  of  Europe  and  Slavonic  tribes  in  the 
eastern  part,  which  belonged  to  other  branches  of  the 
great  family  of  the  Caucasian  Race.  While  the  Roman 
armies  were  conquering  farther  south  these  tribes  did 
not  venture  to  attack  them,  but  after  the  reputation  of 
the  Romans  had  begun  to  decline  they  boldly  crossed 
the  rivers  and  finally  overran  a  large  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 


10 


EUROPE 


The  Northern  Horde  Invading  Italy 


After  these  barbarous  tribes  had  conquered  the  Ro- 
mans the  great  empire  gradually  broke  up.  A  period 
of  about  a  thousand  years,  called  the  Middle  Ages, 
followed.  It  was  a  time  in  which  there  w^ere  almost 
constant  wars  among  the  different  rulers  of  the  nu- 
merous sections  of  Europe.  Gradually,  however,  affairs 
became  more  settled,  stronger  governments  were  formed, 
learning  revived,  and  the  people  began  to  make  use- 
ful discoveries  and  inventions.  At  present  the  nations 
of  Europe  and  the  people  who  have  emigrated  from 
Europe  are  the  leaders  in  the  progress  of  the  race. 

The  nature  of  the  land  surface  of  Europe,  the  relation 
between  the  land  and  the  water,  and  the  climate,  have 
greatly  favored  prosperity.  The  irregularity  of  the 
coast  has  also  been  of  great  advantage.  Bodies  of 
water  afford  an  easy  means  of  communication  between 
different  countries  and  different  parts  of  the  same 
country.     Since    many    seas,    gulfs,    and    bays    extend 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   EUROPE  11 

into  the  continent  and  there  are  good  harbors  near 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  a  large  proportion  of  the 
people  have  been  able  to  carry  on  trade  with  one  an- 
other. Under  such  conditions,  too,  the  influence  of  im- 
provements made  in  one  part  of  the  continent  is 
readily  extended  to  other  parts.  Whenever  valuable 
discoveries  and  inventions  are  made  in  one  country, 
other  countries  soon  adopt  them  and  profit  by  them. 

The  fact  that  Europe  has  a  central  situation  among 
the  continents  of  the  earth  has  enabled  it  to  carry 
on  foreign  trade  more  easily  with  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America. 

The  varied  form  of  the  land,  also,  and  the  numerous 
sources  of  wealth  give  a  variety  of  advantages.  Hills 
and  mountains,  providing  water  power  for  manufactur- 
ing, fertile  valleys  for  agriculture  and  grazing,  and 
mines  of  coal,  iron,  and  other  minerals,  are  very  gen- 
erally distributed  over  the  continent.  They  afford 
opportunities  for  many  occupations. 

The  climate  of  Europe,  wbich  is  mainly  temperate,  is 
upon  the  whole  very  favorable  for  tlie  health  and  the 
general  welfare  of  its  inhabitants. 

The  people  of  southern  Europe  are  of  mixed  ancestry. 
They  are  descendants  in  part  from  the  Romans,  in  part 
from  the  native  peoples  whom  the  Romans  conquered, 
and  in  part  from  the  tribes  of  the  north  that  overran 
the  Roman  Empire.  The  Romans  had  a  darker  com- 
plexion than  the  northern  tribes,  and  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  along  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  present  are 
generally  darker  than  those  in  the  north.  The  English, 
Germans,  Dutch,  Danes,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes  belong 


12 


EUROPE 


to  the  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Caucasian  Race.  The 
French,  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  Italians,  and  Greeks  are 
often  called  the  Greco-Latin  peoples.  The  Russians, 
Bulgarians,  Servians,  Bohemians,  and  Poles  have  mostly 
descended  from  Slavonic  tribes.  The  Finns,  Lapps,  and 
Magyars  belong  to  the  Yellow  Race. 


Finlanders 


1.  What  countries  of  Europe  border  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea? 

2.  What  countries  border  on  the  Baltic  Sea? 

3.  Which  countries  form  peninsulas? 

4.  Across  which  countries  does  the  Ai-ctic  Circle  extend? 

5.  What  large  city  of  Europe  is  nearly  on  the  parallel  of  latitude  that 
forms  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States? 

6.  What  countries  of  Europe  lie  wholly  north  of  that  parallel  ? 

7.  What  state  on  our  Atlantic  coast  extends  about  as  far  south  as 
the  southern  boundary  of  Europe? 

8.  In  what  part  of  Europe  are  Finland  and  Lapland? 

9.  Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Italy  are  called  the  great  powers  of  Europe.  Name  the  capital  city  of 
each  of  these  countries. 

10.  Sketch  a  map  of  Europe  showing  the  largest  rivers,  the  chief 
mountain  ranges,  and  the  boundaries  of  the  countries. 


THE   BRITLSU    ISLES 


13 


3.  The  British  Isles 
The  two  large  islands  near  the  western  coast  of 
Europe  are  called  the  British  Isles.  The  larger  of 
these,  consisting  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  is 
known  as  Great  Britain.  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
together  are  often  called  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 


Windsor  Castle  -  One  of  the  Royal  Palaces 

Britain  and  Ireland,  or  simply  the  United  Kingdom. 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland  were  once  separate 
nations.  After  centuries  of  war  and  jealousy  between 
England  and  Scotland  the  two  were  united,  and  after- 
ward Ireland  was  joined  to  Great  Britain. 

These  two  islands  together  are  not  so  large  as  many  of 
our  states,  such  as  Montana  or  California,  but  they  are 
the  home  country  of  one  of  the  greatest  nations  of  the 
world.  The  United  Kingdom  with  its  colonies  is  called 
the  British  Empire,  and  to  that  empire  belong  Canada, 
India,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  a  great  amount  of  ter- 
ritory in  Africa,  British  Guiana  in  South  America,  and 


14 


EUROPE 


numerous  other  smaller  colonies  scattered  over  the  entire 
world.  All  this  territory  together  amounts  to  about 
one  fifth  of  the  land  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  people 
who  dwell  in  the  scattered  parts  of  the  great  empire 
comprise  about  one  fourth  of  all  the  earth's  inhabitants. 


Stonehenge  —  Ruins  of  a  Temple  of  the  Early  Britons 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  of  whom 
we  have  definite  knowledge  were  the  Celts,  a  branch  of 
the  Caucasian  Race.  In  the  year  55  b.  c.  the  Romans 
invaded  Great  Britain  and  gained  control  of  a  large 
part  of  it.  They  constructed  good  roads  and  made 
other  improvements,  but  after  a  time  they  withdrew 
from  the  island.  Then  the  Danes  gained  a  foothold  in 
England  and  for  some  time  ruled  over  a  part  of  it. 
Other  Teutonic  tribes,  called  Angles  and  Saxons,  con- 
quered the  country  at  a  later  time,  and  from  the  Angles 
it  was  called  Angle-Land,  or  England. 

The    inhabitants  of  the  regions  along  the  northern 


16  EUROPE 

coast  of  Europe  in  these  early  times  were  called  North- 
men. They  were  a  powerful  and  warlike  race  of  sea- 
men and  were  much  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  of 
countries  farther  south.  The  Northmen  gained  posses- 
sion of  a  section  of  northern  France,  afterward  called 
Normandy.  In  the  year  1066  the  Normans,  under  their 
king  William  the  Conqueror,  crossed  over  to  England, 


Cottages  of  Celts  in  Scotch  Highlands 

defeated  the  English,  and  became  the  ruling  class  in  the 
country.  Even  at  the  present  time  many  Englishmen 
are  proud  of  the  fact  that  they  have  descended  from 
Norman  ancestors. 

The  Celts  were  driven  back  to  the  north  by  these 
various  invaders,  and  their  descendants  now  dwell  in 
Ireland,  in  the  Highlands  of  northern  Scotland,  and  in 
the  country  of  Wales. 

It  is  believed  that  the  mainland  of  Europe  once  ex- 
tended much  farther  west  than  now,  and  that  by  the 
sinking  of  the  land  the  ocean  has  covered  a  large  extent 
of  territory,  leaving  the  British  Isles  and  the  neighbor- 


THE   BRITISH   ISLES 


17 


ing  smaller  islands  above  the  surface,  because  they  were 
the  highest  parts  of  the  land.  The  sinking  of  the  land 
on  that  side  of  the  Atlantic  produced  effects  similar  to 
those  along  our  New  England  coast.  The  water  flowed 
into  the  valleys  among  the  hills,  producing  an  uneven 
coast  and  many  good  harbors. 


Stratford  on  Avon 

A  range  of  mountains  once  occupied  a  large  part  of 
the  British  Isles,  but  it  has  been  worn  away.  The  re- 
mains of  these  mountains  are  seen  in  the  hills  that  cover 
the  greater  part  of  Scotland  and  the  western  part  of 
England.  The  surface  of  England  consists  of  level  land 
and  low  hills,  and  there  is  a  small  section  of  lowland  in 
the  southern  part  of  Scotland. 

The  effects  of  the  Ice  Sheet  in  the  British  Isles  are  simi- 
lar to  those  in  our  New  England.  The  soil  is  largely 
composed  of  glacial  drift  and  is  of  various  kinds. 


18  EUROPE 

The  favoraljle  climate  of  these  islands  has  contributed 
much  to  their  development.  Since  they  are  surrounded 
by  water,  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  produces  greater 
effects  upon  them  than  upon  the  mainland  of  Europe. 
The  weather  is  neither  very  warm  in  summer  nor  ex- 
tremely cold  in  winter.  The  prevailing  winds  from  the 
ocean  are  well  supplied  with  moisture  and  provide  an 
abundance  of  rain. 

1.  Name  the  bodies  of  water  that  surround  Great  Britain. 

2.  Locate  the  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

3.  Where  is  Lands  End? 

4.  Where  are  the  Cheviot  Hills  and  the  Grampian  Hills? 

5.  Where  are  the  Cambrian  Mountains? 

6.  Name  two  rivers  in  Scotland. 

7.  What  two  rivers  are  in  southern  England  and  into  what  bodies  of 
water  do  they  flow? 

8.  Name  two  rivers  in  northern  England  and  state  into  what  waters 
they  flow. 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  British  Isles,  indicating  the  names  of  the 
principal  hills  and  mountains,  the  rivers,  and  the  most  important  of  the 
surrounding  bodies  of  water. 

4.    England 

We  regard  England  as  our  mother  country  because 
the  first  permanent  white  settlers  in  America  came  from 
England,  and  it  was  mainly  through  their  efforts  that 
our  country  was  defended  and  developed  in  its  early 
years.  The  fact  that  we  speak  the  same  language  as 
the  English  people  also  gives  us  a  strong  feeling  of 
friendship  toward  them. 

The  same  ability  and  energy  that  were  displayed  by 
the  American  colonists  have  given  the  English  at  home 
the  highest  success  among  the  nations  of  tlie  world. 
Although  their  country  in  the  beginning  consisted  of 


ENGLAND 


19 


one  small  island,  they  have  sent  their  ships  to  all  parts 
of  the  earth  and  have  gained  a  vast  empire. 

We  believe  that  our  prosperity  is  partly  due  to  the 
fact  that  we  have  a  government  by  tlie  people.  Although 
the  English  government  is  called  a  monarchy,  the  King 
or  Queen,  who  is  the  head,  has  comparatively  little 
power.     The  Prime   Minister  has  a  more  active  part, 


vHuifii^^ 


^  .j^'"  .:;>^^<>^ 


Hall  of  the  House  of  Commons 

because  he  is  the  leader  of  Parliament.  Most  of  the 
power  of  the  English  government  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Parliament,  which  consists  of  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  House  of  Lords  consists 
of  dukes,  earls,  barons,  and  ])ishops,  who  hold  the  office 
for  life,  but  the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
are  elected  by  tlie  people. 

The  British  people  are  among  the  greatest  manu- 
facturers in  tlie  world.  In  early  times  woolen  cloth 
was   made   on   liand   looms,   but   after    machinery  was 


20 


EUROPE 


invented  mills  were  built  beside  the  rivers.  Although 
the  rivers  of  England  are  very  small  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  United  States,  there  is  so  much  rain 
that  they  furnish  water  power  during  all  the  year.    After 

steam  engines 
came  into  use 
steam  power  also 
was  employed, 
because  coal 
was  cheap  and 
abundant. 

At  first  woolen 
cloth  was  made 
only  from  the  wool 
raised  in  the  coun- 
try, but  the  Eng- 
lish became  such 
skillful  manufac- 
turers that  they 
soon  began  to  im- 
port wool  from 
other  countries. 
At  a  later  time 
cotton  mills  also 
were  built.  The  British  people  now  manufacture  a  vast 
quantity  of  wool  imported  from  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, and  South  America,  and  a  great  amount  of  cotton 
from  the  United  States  and  some  other  countries. 

Great  Britain  has  special  advantages  for  manufactur- 
ing iron  and  steel.  Its  mines  of  coal  and  iron  are 
near  each  other;    in  some  localities  both  minerals  are 


BRITISH  COALFIELDS 


ENGLAND 


21 


found  in  the  same  mines.  Millions  of  English  people 
are  employed  in  the  coal  and  iron  mines,  and  in  the 
factories  and  shops,  where  articles  are  manufactured  to 
be  sold  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

One  of  the  few  places  in  the  world  where  much  tin 
has  been  obtained  is  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Eng- 
land.    Supplies  of  tin  have  been  mined  there  for  over 


Anne  Hathaway's  Cottage 

two  thousand  years.  The  ancient  peoples  who  lived 
along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  were  accus- 
tomed to  make  voyages  to  England  in  order  to  get  tin 
for  their  bronze  implements. 

In  a  country  in  which  the  people  are  so  largely  de- 
voted to  manufacturing,  a  great  amount  of  food  is  im- 
ported to  supply  the  workmen  and  their  families.  The 
greater  part  of  the  land  of  England  is  now  devoted  to 
grazing.  Much  of  it  is  hilly  or  otherwise  poor  for 
agriculture,  like  much  of  the  land   of  New   England. 


22 


EUROPE 


Agricultural  crops  can  be  raised  so  much  more  easily 
on  the  great  fertile  plains  of  other  countries  that  it  is 
more  profitable  to  import  most  foodstuffs  than  to  try 
to  raise  them  in  England,  except  where  conditions  are 
very  favorable. 

The  moist  climate  of  England  causes  grasses  to  thrive, 
and  the  winters  are   so   mild   that  live   stock   can   be 


The  Herring  Fleet  at  Wick 

left  outdoors  all  winter.  The  country  is  particularly 
noted  for  its  fine  breeds  of  sheep.  Even  the  King 
raises  sheep  on  his  estates  and  frequently  takes  prizes 
at  English  fairs. 

There  are  other  conditions  that  hinder  agricultural 
prosperity  in  England.  Much  of  the  land  is  owned  in 
large  estates  by  members  of  the  English  aristocracy,  and 
each  estate  is  divided  into  small  farms  that  are  leased 
to  tenants.  The  tenant  farmers  pay  rent  for  the  land, 
and  are  not  so  interested  in  improving  it  as  those  who 


ENGLAND 


23 


own  their  farms.  Thousands  of  acres  in  some  parts  of 
Enghmd  are  kept  as  game  preserves,  or  hunting  grounds, 
for  the  pleasure  of  their  owners. 

The  food  supply  is  somewhat  increased  by  large 
quantities  of  fish  taken  from  the  waters  of  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


Shipping  on  the  Thames 

England  could  not  be  such  a  manufacturing  country 
without  carrying  on  a  great  amount  of  commerce.  A 
vast  number  of  ships  are  required  to  bring  the  raw  ma- 
terials to  be  manufactured  and  to  carry  away  the  manu- 
factured products  to  the  markets  of  the  world.  In  such 
an  island  country  many  of  the  people  have  very  naturally 
taken  to  shipbuilding  and  a  seafaring  life.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  great  number  of  safe  harbors.  Eng- 
land alone  has  about  one  hundred  ports  on  the  seacoast 
and  along  the  rivers. 


24 


EUROPE 


About  one  half  of  all  the  merchant  ships  of  the  world 
belong  to  the  British.  In  addition  to  these  the  govern- 
ment is  obliged  to  maintain  a  vast  navy  of  warships  to 
protect  her  interests,  not  only  in  the  home  country  but 
also  among  the  widely  scattered  British  colonies. 


London  Bridge 

1.  Where  was  the  first  permanent  EngUsh  settlement  in  America,  and 
when  was  it  made? 

2.  Where  and  when  was  the  first  permanent  settlement  in  New  England  ? 

3.  The  Channel  Islands  are  noted  for  their  fine  breeds  of  cattle.  Where 
are  these  islands? 

4.  In  what  parts  of  England  are  its  three  great  coal  fields? 

5.  The  towns  on  the  Tyne  River  export  large  quantities  of  coal.  What 
is  the  meaning  of  the  expression  "As  fruitless  as  carrying  coals  to  New- 
castle"? 

6.  Great  Britain  uses  nearly  two  fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  cotton. 
Name  some  American  ports  from  which  much  of  this  is  shipped. 

7.  A  large  share  of  the  trade  of  the  British  colonies  is  with  the  mother 
country.  Name  some  kinds  of  goods  that  British  merchants  would  be 
likely  to  sell  in  the  colonies,  and  others  that  they  would  be  likely  to  buy 
there. 

8.  Most  of  the  British  colonies  show  no  desire  to  separate  from  Great 
Britain.     Can  you  give  reasons  for  this? 


CITIES   AND   INTERESTING   LOCALITIES 


5.  Cities  and  Interesting  Localities 
In  England  there  are  more  than  twenty  times  as 
many  people  per  square  mile  as  there  are  in  the  United 
States.  In  a  country  with  such  a  dense  population  we 
should  suppose  that  there  would  be  a  number  of  large 
cities,  and  as  there  cannot  be  a  great  amount  of  agri- 
culture in  such  a  small  country,  most  of  the  cities  owe 


The  London  Custom  House 

their  size  and  prosperity  to  special  advantages  for  man- 
ufacturing and  commerce. 

London,  on  the  Thames  River,  is  the  largest  city  in 
the  world.  It  is  difhcult  to  realize  its  immense  size. 
It  is  about  fifteen  miles  long  and  ten  miles  wide,  and 
contains  more  than  seven  million  people.  If  all  of  its 
streets  were  arranged  in  a  continuous  line,  they  would 
extend  over  seven  thousand  miles,  or  more  than  one 
fourth  of  the  distance  around  the  world. 

The  great  size  of  London  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  greatest  commercial  center  of  the  world. 


26 


EUROPE 


We  should  begin  to  realize  this  if  we  were  to  approach 
the  city  by  passing  up  the  river  on  a  steamer.  At  its 
mouth  the  Thames  is  six  miles  wide,  but  it  becomes 
gradually  narrower  from  the  sea  to  the  center  of  the 
great  city.     There  is  a  continual   passing  of  ships  of 

all    sizes    and 

descriptions, 

and  soon  lines 

of  vessels  are 

seen   lying  at 

the  docks,  that 

extend    along 

each       river 

bank  for  more 

than      twenty 

A  London  Dock  miles.      Many 

of  these  ships  are  in  their  home  port,  for  Great  Britain 

owns  over  thirty-five  thousand  vessels. 

Since  London  has  such  a  central  location  in  the  civil- 
ized world,  it  has  become  a  great  seat  for  the  exchange 
of  goods  among  many  countries.  Cargoes  from  South 
America,  for  example,  or  from  Asia  or  Africa,  may  be 
taken  to  London  and  there  loaded  on  other  ships  and 
sent  to  various  parts  of  Europe  or  America. 

Aside  from  such  exchanges,  a  great  amount  of  ship- 
ping is  required  to  supply  the  wants  of  London  itself  and 
of  other  British  cities  that  obtain  their  supplies  from 
London.  A  vast  amount  of  food  is  needed  for  so  many 
millions  of  people.  British  farmers  do  not  produce  more 
than  one  tenth  of  the  food  supply  of  the  country.  Great 
Britain  imports  every  year  over  one  hundred  million 


CITIES   AND   INTERESTING    LOCALITIES 


27 


dollars  worth  of  butter  and  over  two  hundred  and  fifty 
million  pounds  of  tea.  Thousands  of  British  ships  are 
constantly  loading  with  food  supplies  in  the  ports  of 
America,  Russia,  Africa,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
many  other  })arts  of  the  world. 


St.  Paul's  Cathedral 

We  have  also  a  great  interest  in  London  because  it 
is  a  very  old  city.  It  was  in  existence  more  than  two 
thousand  years  ago.  Our  city  of  New  York  is  rapidly 
approaching  the  present  size  of  London  and  may  at 
some  time  surpass  it,  but  everything  in  New  York  is  of 
comparatively  recent  date. 

Among  the  buildings  that  have  interesting  historical 
associations  are  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Westminster 
Abbey,  and  the  Tower  of  London.  The  dome  of  St. 
Paul's  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.  Its  top  is 
three  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  above  the  street. 


28 


EUROPE 


Westminster  Abbey  has  been  called  a  "Temple  of 
Fame."  The  graves  of  England's  kings  and  other  cele- 
brated persons  have  been  made  beneath  its  pavement 
for  the  past  eight  hundred  years,  and  many  monuments, 
busts,  and  tablets  do  them  honor.  It  is  gratifying 
to  American  travelers  to  find  our  own  poet  Longfellow 


^,^/1^i|S'^*M*ii~T  ^ 


Westminster  Abbey 

honored  by  a   bust  among   these   memorials   of    Eng- 
land's great  men. 

The  Tower  of  London  was  at  first  a  royal  castle,  then 
a  prison,  but  it  is  now  used  partly  as  barracks  for 
soldiers,  and  partly  as  an  armory  and  museum.  The 
oldest  part  of  the  present  structure  was  built  in  the  year 
1078  by  the  Norman  king,  William  the  Conqueror. 
Much  cruelty  and  suffering  have  been  connected  with 
its  history.  The  old  English  kings  were  accustomed  to 
rid  themselves  of  personal  enemies  by  thrusting  them 


CITIES   AND   INTERESTING   LOCALITIES 


29 


into  the  Tower,  where  some  were  killed  without  trial, 
and  others  imprisoned  as  long  as  they  lived. 

The  building  called  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  where 
the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Commons  meet, 
is  an  immense  structure  covering  eight  acres  of  land. 

In  addition  to  a  great  number  of  independent  banks 
such  as  we  have  in  the  United  States,  England  has  one 


The  Tower  of  London 

central  bank  with  numerous  branches.  The  Bank  of 
England,  as  it  is  called,  is  the  greatest  financial  center 
in  the  world.  No  one  ever  fears  that  it  will  fail.  Its 
vaults  always  contain  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars. 

Although  London  is  an  interesting  city,  it  has  some 
disadvantages.  Every  one  has  heard  of  the  London  fog. 
This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  moist  climate.  It  is  believed 
that  the  fog  is  increased  in  winter  by  the  smoke  that  rises 
from  the  fires  of  the  city.  Each  particle  of  smoke  gathers 
moisture  about  itself  and  becomes  a  particle  of  fog. 


30 


EUROPE 


In  the  region  of  the  coal  fields  in  northern  England  is 
a  gronp  of  noted  manufacturing  cities.  Manchester  is  a 
great  center  for  cotton  trade  and  cotton  manufacturing. 
Its  supplies  of  cotton  are  brought  from  America,  India, 
and  Egypt.  By  the  Manchester  Canal  ocean  vessels 
loaded  with  cotton  are  able  to  take  cargoes  past  the 
port  of  Liverpool  directly  to  their  destination. 


The  Manchester  Canal 

Leeds  is  a  great  center  for  woolen  trade  and  woolen 
manufacturing.  Its  supplies  come  principally  from 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Argentina.  The  manufac- 
ture of  woolen  goods  is  the  chief  industry  in  other  towns 
in  the  vicinity,  in  which  immense  quantities  of  worsted 
goods,  carpets,  blankets,  and  other  articles  are  produced. 

Birmingham  is  the  great  metal-working  city  of  Eng- 
land. A  variety  of  iron  suitable  for  making  the  best 
steel  is  found  near  by,  and  is  converted  into  products 
of  all  forms  and  sizes,  from  great  machines  and  steam 


CITIES   AND    IXTERESTlXd    LOCALITIES         ;U 

engines  to  nails,  screws,  pins,  needles,  and  pens.    Sheffield 
is  particularly  noted  for  the  production  of  fine  cutlery. 

For  all  this  manufacturing  region  Liverpool  is  the 
great  seaport.  It  is  the  most  natural  port  of  entrance 
into  Great  Britain  from  America.  Ships  that  enter  the 
port  of  Liverpool  are  loaded  with  cotton  and  wool  for 


the  mills  of  the  manufacti 


district,  and  with  wheat. 


The  Houses  of  Parliament 

beef,  pork,  and  other  supplies  for  the  manufacturing 
population.  On  their  return  voyage  they  carry  articles 
of  English  manufacture. 

American  travelers  in  England  find  nuich  to  interest 
them  outside  the  great  centers  of  industry.  The  coun- 
try is  full  of  places  of  great  historic  interest.  The  rural 
districts  are  beautiful.  Along  the  highways  are  green 
hedges  and  flowers,  and  pretty  vine-covered  cottages. 
Now  and  then  one  comes  upon  an  ancient  castle,  and 
there  are  numerous  large  mansions,  where  the  English 


32 


EUROPE 


gentry    live.      In    the    lake    region    in    northwestern 
England  the  country  is  extremely  beautiful. 

Wales,  in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  is  also  an 
attractive  region.  It  is  noted  for  the  fine  sheep  that 
graze  among  its  hills  and  mountains,  and  for  its  rich 
mines  of  coal  and  iron. 


The  Bank  of  England 


1.  Before  the  discovery  of  America  the  cities  of  the  western  coast  of 
England  grew  very  slowly.     What  was  the  reason  fbr  this? 

2.  Bristol  was  once  the  second  city  of  England  in  size.     From  that 
port  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  sailed  to  America.    Where  is  it  ? 

3.  Why  has  Liverpool  greatly  surpassed  Bristol  in  its  growth? 

4.  We  send  more  products  to  Liverpool  than  to  any  other  city  in 
the  world.     Why  do  we  send  more  to  Liverpool  than  to  London? 

5.  In  what  direction  from  Liverpool  is  Leeds? 

6.  Fine  cloth  is  made  at  Bradford.     Near  what  larger  city  is  it? 

7.  Hull  is  an  important  fishing  port.     Where  is  it? 

8.  Cardiff  exports  a  great  amovmt  of  coal.     Where  is  it  situated? 

9.  Oxford  and  Cambridge  are  famous  university  towns.     In  what 
direction  is  each  from  London? 

10.  Compare  the  population  of  London  with  that  of  Scotland. 

11.  The  meridian  that  passes  through  Greenwich,  a  part  of  London, 
is  the  meridian  from  which  longitude  is  reckoned.     About  how  many 

west  of  (irecnwich  is  your  home? 

12.  Sketch  a  map  of  England  and  locate  the  important  cities. 


SCOTLAND 


33 


6.    Scotland 

Much  that  we  have  learned  about  England  may  also 
be  applied  to  Scotland,  the  country  consisting  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  This 
country  is  more 
mountainous 
than  England, 
and  has  no 
great  sources  of 
wealth. 

The  northern 
portion  of  Scot- 
land is  almost 
entirely  covered 
with  rugged 
hills  and  moun- 
tains and  is 
called  the  High- 
lands. South 
of  the  High- 
lands is  a  more 
nearly  level  re- 
gion called  the 
Lowlands.  Still 
farther  south  is 
another  region 
of  hilly  upland.  More  than  one  half  of  the  people  of 
the  country  live  in  the  Lowlands,  and  the  greater  part 
of   the  wealth    and   industry    is  found  there. 

The  Scottish  people  are  now  loyal  British  sul)jects, 


Copyright  l)y  I'mlerwuoil  ,v  i  i!!.i\'. 

The  Highland  Kilt  and  the  Firth  of 
Forth  Bridge 


34 


EUROPE 


but  their  ancestors  once  fouglit  very  bravely  against  the 
English  in  defense  of  their  independence.  Many  years 
ago  the  inhabitants  of  the  Highlands  belonged  to  sepa- 
rate clans,  each  of  which  was  nnder  the  leadership  of  a 
chief.  These  clans  lived  by  hunting  and  by  raising 
sheep  and  cattle.  They  often  fought  against  one  an- 
other or  united 
to  fight  against 
a  common  foe. 
Many  of  the 
stories  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott 
are  based  up- 
on the  val- 
iant deeds  of 
the  Highland 
chiefs  and 
their  clans- 
men. The  peo- 
ple of  Scot- 
land are  proud 
of  their  an- 
cestry and  de- 
light in  dress- 
ing t  h  e  m  - 
selves  occasionally  in  the  old  Highland  costumes. 

Among   those   whose  names   are   always    associated 

with    Scotland   are   Mary,  "  Queen  of  Scots,"  and  the 

plowboy  poet,  Robert  Burns.     Many  thousand  people 

every  year  visit  the  birthplace  of  Burns  at  Ayr. 

In  the  Lowlands  of   Scotland   there  are  rich  mines 


Cop3  nght  by  Undorwond  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Shipbuilding  on  the  Clyde 


SCOTLAND 


35 


of  coal    and  iron,  and  large  manufacturing  cities  and 
towns,  as  in  corresponding  regions  of  England. 

Glasgow,  on  the  Clyde  River,  has  become  the  second 
largest  city  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  near  the  coal  and 
iron  fields  of  southern  Scotland  and  is  also  the  center  of 
trade  for  the  excellent  farming  region  of  the  Lowlands. 
Besides   producing   clothing,  carpets,  and  many   other 


Edinburgh  Castle 

articles  from  cotton  and  wool,  it  manufactures  much 
machinery  and  a  great  number  of  steel  ships.  Immense 
shipyards  extend  along  the  banks  of  the  Clyde.  Many 
of  the  largest  ships  upon  the  ocean  were  constructed 
by  the  ship-builders  of  Glasgow. 

Edinburgh  is  one  of  the  few  important  cities  of  the 
world  that  do  not  owe  their  size  to  manufacturing  or 
commerce.  It  was  the  capital  city  of  Scotland,  and  was 
built  on  and  around  a  great  rock  between  the  hills  and 
the  sea.     It  was  the  scene  of  many  interesting  events 


36 


EUROPE 


in  the  old  struggle  between  England  and  Scotland. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  cities  in  Europe  and 
contains  a  great  nniversitj. 

Much  cotton  is  manufactured  both  in  Glasgow  and  in 
Paisley.  A  great  amount  of  cotton  thread  is  made 
in  the  latter  city. 

In  recent  times  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  have  be- 
come   famous    pleasure    resorts.       Many    vast    estates 

are  owned  by 
wealthy  Eng- 
lishmen and 
Americans,  and 
are  used  as  pri- 
vate hunting 
grounds. 

The  country 
is  beautiful 
everywhere.  It 
is  sometimes 
called  the  land 
of  lieather. 
Heather  is  a 
Ellen's  Isle  lo^y  green  bush, 

with  a  purple  flower  that  gives  the  autumn  landscape  a 
delightful  color.  It  is  to  be  seen  on  morasses  and  waste 
lands  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  but 
in  Scotland  it  grows  on  the  hills  almost  everywhere. 

Many  tourists  visit  the  lakes  of  Scotland,  two  of 
which  are  Loch  Lomond  and  Loch  Katrine.  The  latter 
contains  Ellen's  Isle,  the  scene  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
poem,  "  The  Lady  of  the  Lake." 


IRELAND 


37 


1.  The  rainfall  along  the  western  coast  of  Scotland  is  twice  as  great 
as  that  along  the  eastern  coast.    Can  you  tell  why? 

2.  In  Scotland  the  name  firth  is  given  to  the  wide  mouth  of  a  river, 
which  we  call  an  estuary.    Name  three  firths  in  Scotland. 

3.  Ben  Nevis,   a  granite  peak,   is  the  highest  point  in  the  British 
Isles.    In  what  part  of  Scotland  is  it? 

4.  In  what  direction  from  Glasgow  is  Paisley? 

5.  Aberdeen  is  a  fishing  center.     Where  is  it  situated? 

6.  Dundee  manufactures  large  quantities  of  goods  from  jute,  a  fiber 
imported  from  Asia.     In  what  part  of  Scotland  is  Dundee? 

7.  In  what 
part  of  Scotland  is 
AjT,  the  home  of 
Robert  Burns? 

8.  Where  are 
the  Orkney 
Islands? 

9.  Near  what 
part  of  the  coast 
of  Scotland  are 
the  Hebrides? 

10.  Shetland 
ponies  are  from 
the  Shetland  I.sl- 
ands.  AVhere  are 
these  islands? 

11.  Sketch  a 
map    of   Scotland, 

locating  the  rivers  and  firths,  and  the  cities  and  towns  and  other  points 
of  interest. 


Blarney  Castle 


7.    Ireland 

The  people  of  Ireland,  although  living  so  near  the 
island  of  Great  Britain  and  belonging  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  have  been  far  less  prosperous  than  their  neigh- 
bors across  the  Irish  Sea. 

Ireland  lacks  the  water  power,  the  coal  for  steam 
power,  and  the  rich  mines  of  iron  ore  that  have  brought 
wealth  to  Great  Britain. 


38 


EUROPE 


A  ridge  of  hills  extends  around  the  coast,  and  the 
interior  is  a  basin  of  lower  land,  well  suited  to  agri- 
culture. A  farming  people  in  such  a  country  might 
have  gained  a  comfortable  living  had  they  owned  the 
land  that  they  tilled.  A  large  proportion  of  the  soil, 
however,  has  been  owned  in  large  estates  by   English 

and  Irish  land- 
lords, who  have 
divided  their  hold- 
ings into  small 
farms  and  leased 
these  to  Irish  ten- 
ants. The  large 
part  of  the  in- 
come required  to 
pay  the  rent  has 
often  left  but  lit- 
tle for  the  support 
of  the  farmers. 

In  addition  to 
such  live  stock  as 
they  could  raise, 
Irish  farmers 
have  depended, 
mainly  upon  the  crop  of  potatoes  for  their  food  and  for 
the  payment  of  rent  to  the  landlords.  In  1 846  the  potato 
crop  failed  and  more  than  a  million  people  died  of  starva- 
tion. A  million  more  at  that  time  came  to  the  United 
States  to  seek  more  favorable  conditions.  Since  then 
many  thousands  every  year  have  crossed  the  Atlantic  and 
have  been  added  to  our  population.     If  we  should  in- 


Copyright  by  T'luliT-rt  ni>ii 

Thatched  Cottage  in  an  Irish  Village 


IRELAND 


39 


elude  among  the  Irish  people  of  the  United  States  all 
those  whose  parents  or  grandparents  or  great-grand- 
parents once  lived  in  Ireland,  the  number  would  amount 
to  twice  that  of  the  present  population  of  the  home 
country. 

Of  late  the 
British  gov- 
ernment has 
attempted  to 
improve  the 
hard  condi- 
tions of  Irisli 
farmers.  By 
the  Land  Act 
of  1903  the 
sum  of  one 
hundred  mil- 
lion pounds, 
or  five  hun- 
dred    million 

dollars,  was  appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing 
estates  in  Ireland  and  afterward  selling  the  land  to 
the  tenants  on  easy  terms.  The  government  is  also 
endeavoring  to  bring  about  other  needed  reforms  to 
render  the  people  more  contented  and  happy. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  however,  agriculture 
has  been  more  flourishing.  There  are  good  farms  in 
central  Ireland,  and  even  finer  ones  in  the  north,  where 
the  people  are  more  prosperous  than  in  the  other 
sections. 

In  the  absence  of  coal  the  Irish  people  are  fortunate 


Gathering  Peat 


40 


EUROPE 


in  having  an  abundance  of  peat  for  fuel.  Peat  may  be 
regarded  as  partially  formed  coal.  It  is  found  in 
marshy  bogs,  where  masses  of  soft,  dark-colored,  decayed 
vegetable  matter  have  been  collecting  for  thousands  of 
years  and  lack  only  immense  pressure  to  change  them 
to  mineral  coal.    After  blocks  of  peat  have  been  dug  out 


C'upyriKlit,  by  T'mlcrw  (lod  A  rndenvood,  N.  Y. 

Reeling  Flax  in  a  Belfast  Linen  Factory 

of  the  bogs  and  dried  in  the  sun,  they  burn  readily  and 
are  sold  as  the  common  fuel  of  the  country. 

In  the  northeastern  part  of  Ireland  the  soil  and  climate 
are  favorable  for  flax,  and  the  people  of  that  section 
manufacture  a  large  amount  of  Ihien  goods  from  the 
flax  raised  at  home  and  from  supplies  that  are  im- 
ported. The  dampness  of  the  climate  is  an  advantage 
both  in  raising  flax  and  in  preparing  the  fiber. 

The  city  of  Belfast  is  noted  everywhere  for  the  manu- 
facture of  linen.     It  has  the  largest  linen  mill  in  the 


IRELAND 


41 


world.  Much  cotton  also  is  manufactured  at  Belfast 
and  many  ships  are  built  there.  It  is  situated  at  a  con- 
venient point  for  sliippiiig.  It  is  a  beautiful  city,  also, 
as  well  as  the  chief  manufacturing  city  of  Ireland. 

Cork  is  the  metropolis,  or  chief  city,  of  southern  Ire- 
land. It  is  a  trading  center  for  agricultural  products, 
has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  noted  for  the  live  stock,  meat, 


Sackville  Street,  Dublin 

and  butter  that  it  ships  to  foreign  markets.  The  port 
of  Queenstown,  where  American  steamers  often  call  on 
their  way  to  Liverpool,  is  on  the  same  harbor. 

Dublin  is  one  of  the  fine  cities  of  Europe.  Its  facto- 
ries produce  a  large  amount  of  a  kind  of  dress  goods 
called  Irish  poplin.  Large  quantities  of  farm  products 
are  shipped  from  Dublin  to  England. 

Ireland  is  often  called  the  Emerald  Isle.  This  is 
because  the  moist  climate  keeps  the  vegetation  green. 
The  region  of  the  Lakes  of  Killarney  in  the  southwest 
is  especially  attractive. 


42  EUROPE 

1.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  along  the  northern  coast  of  Ireland  are 
of  Scottish  descent.     Can  you  give  the  reason  for  this? 

2.  From  what  ports  may  Belfast  obtain  supplies  of  coal? 

3.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Belfast  to  Liverpool? 

4.  Name  some  articles  that  are  made  of  linen. 

5.  Long  ago  linen  cloth  was  cheaper  than  cotton  cloth.  Can  you  give 
the  reasons? 

6.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Queenstown  to  Liverpool? 

7.  In  what  direction  is  Liverpool  from  Dublin? 
S.    On  what  river  is  Limerick? 

9.  Where  is  Galway? 

10.  In  what  part  of  Ireland  is  Londonderry? 

11.  In  what  direction  from  Cork  are  the  Lakes  of  Killarney? 

12.  Sketch  a  map  of  Ireland  and  locate  the  cities  mentioned. 

Review 

1.  Why  is  the  study  of  the  continent  of  Europe  especially  interesting 
to  us? 

2.  Describe  the  mountains  of  Europe. 

3.  Why  are  there  many  lakes  and  waterfalls  in  northern  Europe? 

4.  Why  is  the  climate  of  western  Europe  much  milder  than  that  of 
the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States? 

5.  Give  an  explanation  of  ocean  currents. 

6.  Describe  the  Ciulf  Stream. 

7.  Explain  the  difference  in  temperature  between  the  western  part 
of  Europe  and  the  eastern  part. 

8.  Why  is  there  a  greater  difference  in  climate  between  northern  and 
southern  Europe  than  between  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States? 

9.  Tell  about  the  ancestors  of  the  people  of  Europe. 

10.  Give  an  account  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

11.  Explain  why  the  Roman  Empire  was  an  advantage  to  the  world. 

12.  Tell  about  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

13.  Describe  the  condition  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

14.  How  has  the  form  of  the  continent  of  Europe  been  favorable  to 
its  inhabitants? 

15.  Tell  about  the  people  of  southern  Europe. 

16.  State  to  what  races  the  various  peoples  of  the  continent  belong. 

17.  What  are  meant  by  Great  Britain  and  the  United  Kingdom? 

18.  Name  the  parts  of  the  earth  that  belong  to  the  British  Empire. 

19.  Tell  about  the  early  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain. 

20.  Tell  about  the  Northmen. 

21.  State  how  the  British  Isles  have  probably  been  formed. 


REVIEW 


43 


Warwick  Castle,  England 

22.  Describe  the  surface  of  Great  Britain. 

23.  Explain  the  climate  of  the  British  Isles. 

24.  Explain  the  English  form  of  government. 

25.  Give  an  account  of  the  development  of  manufacturing  in  Great 
Britain. 

26.  What  advantages  have  the  British  for  manufacturing? 

27.  Tell  about  the  tin  mines  of  Great  Britain. 

2S.  Why  is  much  land  in  England  devoted  to  grazing? 

29.  To  whom  does  most  of  the  land  in  England  belong? 

30.  Why  do  the  English  people  own  a  great  number  of  ships? 

31.  Why  do  they  maintain  a  large  navy? 

32.  How  dense  is  the  population  of  England? 

33.  Tell  about  the  size  of  London. 

34.  Why  has  it  become  so  large? 

35.  Tell  about  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  and  Westminster  Abbey. 

36.  Tell  about  the  Tower  of  London  and  the  Houses  of  Parliament. 

37.  Tell  about  the  Bank  of  England. 

38.  Describe  Manchester  and  the  Manchester  Canal. 

39.  For  what  is  Leeds  noted? 

40.  Wliat  cities  are  noted  for  metal-working  industries? 
4L  Pvxplain  the  importance  of  Liverpool. 

42.  Describe  the  rural  districts  of  England. 

43.  For  what  is  Wales  noted? 

44.  How  does  Scotland  differ  from  England? 

45.  Describe  the  dilTcroiit  sections  of  Scotland. 

46.  Give  a  brief  account  of  the  Scoltisli  IlighlaiuhM's. 

47.  Tell  about  two  distinguished  Scotchmen. 


44 


EUROPE 


4S.    Where  are  the  coal  and  iron  mines  of  Scotland? 

49.  Describe  the  city  of  Glasgow. 

50.  Describe  the  city  of  Edinburgh. 

51.  State  some  of  the  attractions  of  Scotland  as  a  pleasure  resort. 

52.  What  sources  of  wealth,  that  are  found  in  Great  Britain,  are  lack- 
ing in  Ireland? 

53.  Describe  the  land  surface  of  Ireland. 

54.  What  condition  has  hindered  the  prcsperity  of  Irish  farmers? 

55.  Tell  about  the  emigration  of  Irish  people  to  America. 

56.  What   improvement   of   conditions   in   Ireland   has  recently  been 

made  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment? 

57.  Tell  about  the  use  of 
peat  for  fuel. 

58.  Tell  about  the  linen 
industry. 

59.  Describe  the  city  of 
Belfast. 

60.  Tell  about  Cork  and 
Queenstown. 

61.  For   what   is   Dublin 
noted? 

62.  Describe  the  scenery 
of  Ireland. 


Ancient  Tower  at  Nimes 


8.    France 

It  is  only  about 
twenty  miles  across 
the  Strait  of  Dover  from  England  to  France.  That  coun- 
try is  about  twice  as  large  as  the  state  of  California.  It  is 
smaller  than  the  state  of  Texas.  It  will  aid  us  in  form- 
ing correct  notions  about  the  size  of  many  of  the  countries 
of  Europe  if  we  think  of  them  as  corresponding  in  area  to 
the  larger  or  smaller  states  of  the  United  States.  Since, 
however,  European  countries  have  had  a  much  longer 
period  of  civilization  than  any  part  of  America,  they  are 
naturally  of  greater  importance  in  respect  to  population 
and  wealth  than  our  states  of  corresponding  size. 


FRAXC'E 


45 


The  French  people  are  mostly  descendants  of  the 
early  inhabitants,  who  were  called  Gauls,  of  the  Romans 
who  conquered  the  Gauls,  and  of  the  Northmen,  or 
Normans,  who  settled  in  the  northern  part  of  France. 
After  the  Roman  Empire  was  broken  up  wars  were 
continued  for  many  years  among  the  different  tribes 
and  peoples,  but  finally  all  these  became  united  in  one 


A  French  Chateau 

nation.  No  ranges  of  lofty  mountains  extend  across 
the  country  to  divide  it  into  parts,  and  prevent  the  union 
of  the  people.  The  mountains  in  the  south  and  east, 
and  the  ocean  and  seas  on  the  other  sides,  form  natural 
barriers  of  separation  from  other  countries. 

At  times  in  its  history  France  has  been  one  of  the 
most  powerful  nations  in  the  world,  but  it  has  had  many 
misfortunes.  Every  one  has  read  about  the  terrible 
French  Revolution.  The  kings  and  nobles  had  become 
so  oppressive  and  selfish  that  the  people  rebelled  and 
overthrew  them.  We  are  familiar,  also,  with  the  life  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  after  the  Revolution  became 


46 


EUROPE 


the  leader  of  the  French  army  and  the  Emperor  of 
France.  He  conquered  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe, 
but  was  at  last  defeated  and  sent  into  exile. 

France  has  now  a  republican  form  of  government 
similar  to  that  of  the  United  States.  It  is  one  of  the 
great  powers  of  Europe,  and  has  foreign  possessions  in 
Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America,  and  many  islands. 

The  land 
and  climate  of 
France  make 
it  suitable  for 
the  home  of 
a  prosperous 
and  happy 
people.  In  the 
southeastern 
part  are  high- 
lands  and 
hills,  but  the 
remainder 
consists  most- 
ly of  rolling 
plains.  The  rivers  are  generally  free  from  waterfalls, 
and  hence  are  navigable  for  long  distances.  Because 
the  country  is  so  nearly  level  it  is  easy  to  build  canals 
connecting  the  rivers,  and  by  rivers  and  canals  it  is 
possible  for  boats  to  pass  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

The  westerly  winds  supply  an  ample  rainfall,  and  on 
account  of  the  absence  of  mountains  this  is  well  dis- 
tributed over  the  whole  country. 


Notre  Dame  and  Canal  Branch  of  the  Seine 


FRANCE 


47 


The  great  amount  of  comparatively  level  and  fertile 
land  has  made  France  an  important  agricultural  country. 
Its  soil  yields  a  great  variety  of  produce.  In  the  north- 
ern and  central  parts  large  quantities  of  wheat  and  other 
grains  are  raised,  as  well  as  a  great  amount  of  sugar 
beets.  More 
wheat  is  raised 
in  France  than 
in  any  other 
European  coun- 
try except  Rus- 
sia. Orchards 
of  apples,  peach- 
es, and  pears 
also  flourish.  In 
the  southern 
regions  oranges, 
lemons,  olives, 
and  mulberry 
trees  abound. 
Many  provinces 
are  nearly  cov- 
ered with  vine- 
yards,  and 
France  is  the  chief  wine-producing  country  of  the  world. 

About  one  half  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  farming. 
There  are  nearly  as  many  farms  as  there  are  in  the  whole 
of  the  United  States,  but  since  France  is  so  much  smaller 
than  the  United  States,  the  average  size  of  its  farms  is 
not  large.  The  farming  people,  however,  are  very  in- 
dustrious, and  by  care  and  skill  secure  profitable  crops. 


Breton  Peasants  Threshing 


48 


EUROPE 


The  system  of  farming  is  very  different  from  that  in 
America.  On  French  farms  there  are  no  buildings. 
The  people  live  together  in  villages  and  go  out  in  the 
morning  to  work  upon  the  land.  The  wives  of  the 
farmers  are  very  industrious.     Many  of  them  assist  in 

the  fields  in 
the  busy  farm- 
ing  season 
and  spend  their 
leisure  moments 
in  making  em- 
broidery and 
lace.  The  fact 
that  French 
farmers  own 
their  land,  in- 
stead of  holding 
it  as  tenants  as 
the  farmers  of 
many  European 
countries  do, 
makes  them 
more     careful 

nderwood  &  Underwood,  N.Y.     ^t^^    ludustrioUS 

Peasants  making  Wooden  Shoes  ^^^    more    con- 

tented.    Very  few  French  people  are  inclined  to  leave 
their  native  country  and  settle  in  foreign  lands. 

Although  France  has  but  little  water  power  or  coal,  it 
is  one  of  the  leading  manufacturing  countries.  This  is 
partly  because  coal  and  iron  can  be  obtained  so  easily 
from  the  neighboring  countries  of  Belgium,  Germany, 


FRANCE 


49 


and  England,  and  partly  because  the  French  are  very 
skillful.  They  have  a  natural  taste  for  that  which 
is  graceful  and  delicate,  and  in  manufacturing  fine 
articles  of  dress  and  other  fancy  goods  they  are 
recognized  as  the 
leaders  of  the 
world.  The  prep- 
aration of  fine 
leather  and  the 
manufacture  of 
kid  gloves  and 
other  leather 
goods  is  an  impor- 
tant industry. 

A  narrow  re- 
gion along  the 
southeastern 
coast  of  the  coun- 
try and  extend- 
ing into  Italy,  known  as  the  Riviera,  is  a  delightful 
winter  resort.  It  is  protected  by  mountains  from  cold 
winds  from  the  north,  while  from  the  south  it  has  the 
balmy  breezes  of  the  Mediterranean.  Tropical  fruits, 
palm  trees,  and  roses  are  abundant. 

In  the  region  of  the  Riviera  there  is  one  very  inter- 
esting industry.  A  large  part  of  the  perfumery  of  the 
world  is  produced  in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Grasse, 
near  the  city  of  Nice.  In  the  valleys  near  the  town 
there  are  thousands  of  acres  of  flower  beds  from  which 
perfumery  is  obtained.  The  blossoms  are  placed  be- 
tween sheets  of  glass  that  have  been  rubbed  with  lard, 


Cannes  —  A  Seaside  Paradise 


50 


EUROPE 


and  the  oil  of  the  flowers  passes  into  the  lard.  After- 
wards the  perfumery  is  separated  from  the  lard  by  the 
use  of  alcohol.  In  making  attar  of  roses  and  eau  de 
cologne  blossoms  are  thrown  into  melted  lard.  It  re- 
quires a  thousand  pounds  of  rose  petals  to  make  a  single 
pound  of  attar  of  roses.  This  industry  gives  employ- 
ment to  many  women  and  children  of  the  town  of 
Grasse. 


Grasse,  the   Centre  of  the  Perfume  Industry 


1.  What  waters  border  on  France? 

2.  What  countries  form  parts  of  the  boundary  of  France? 

3.  Where  are  the  Cevennes  Mountains? 

4.  Mt.  Blanc,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps,  is  mostly  on  the  French 
side  of  the  boundary  line.     How  far  is  it  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea? 

5.  Name  four  important  rivers  in  France. 

6.  Into  what  body  of  water  does  each  of  these  rivers  flow? 

7.  If  there  were  mountain  ranges  in  the  western  part  of  France,  how 
would  they  affect  the  even  distribution  of  the  rainfall? 

8.  A  large  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  noted  as  the  birthplace  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  is  within  sight  from  the  Riviera.     What  island  is  it? 

9.  What  possession  has  France  in  South  America? 


CITIES   OF   FllANXE 


51 


9.    The  Cities  of  France 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France  and  the  largest  city  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  is  in  many  respects  as  interest- 
ing as  London.  Its  history,  like  that  of  London,  ex- 
tends back  into  the  past  for  many  centuries.  A  little 
island  in  the 
Seine  River, 
called  the  Isle 
de  la  Cite, 
was  the  chief 
town  of  a 
tribe  named 
the  Parisii  at 
the  time  when 
the  Roman 
general  Julius 
Caesar     con- 

^  ^  Panorama  of  seven  Bridges  on  the  Seine 

quered  b  ranee, 

or  Gaul  as  it  was  then  called.  From  this  small  begin- 
ning the  city  has  spread  for  miles  along  the  river.  It 
has  always  been  a  capital  city  and  was  the  residence  of 
the  kings  of  France  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 

It  is  the  great  commercial  and  agricultural  center  of 
France.  It  is  easily  reached  by  rivers,  canals,  and  rail- 
roads and  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming 
region.  Much  manufacturing  is  done  at  Paris.  It  is 
specially  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  ladies'  wearing 
apparel  and  of  various  kinds  of  artistic  goods.  Articles 
made  in  Paris  are  sure  to  find  a  market  because  that 
city  establishes  the  fashions  for  the  whole  world. 


52 


EUROPE 


Paris  is  a  very  beautiful  city.  Its  citizens  have  taken 
great  care  to  lay  out  streets,  design  parks,  and  con- 
struct buildings  so  as  to  make  everything  pleasing  to 
the  eye.  Many  thousands  of  travelers  every  year  visit  the 
art  galleries,  parks,  and  other  points  of  interest  in  Paris. 


A  Street  in  Paris 

In  the  oldest  part  of  the  city,  on  the  island  in  the 
Seine,  is  the  famous  old  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame. 
Among  the  most  attractive  places  are  the  garden  of 
the  Tuileries,  in  .which  formerly  stood  a  palace  of  the 
kings  of  France,  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  surrounded 
by  parks  and  beautiful  buildings,  and  the  Champs 
Elysees,  a  beautiful  garden  with  wide  avenues  extend- 
ing across  it.  The  Louvre,  formerly  a  palace,  is  one  of 
the  finest  art  galleries  in  the  world.  In  the  palace  at 
Versailles,  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  there  are  now  over 
two  thousand  valuable  works  of  art. 


CITIES   OF   FRANCE 


53 


It  reciclies  a  height  of  nine  hundred  feet  above 


The  first  object  to  be  seen  when  approaching  Paris, 
and  the  last  when  departing,  is  the  great  Eiffel  Tower, 
which  was  erected  at  the  time  of  tlie  Paris  Exposition 
in  1889 

the  street  and  is 
believed  to  be  the 
"loftiest  struc- 
ture ever  erected 
on  the  face  of  the 
earth." 

Havre,  at  the 
mouth  of  the 
Seine  River,  is  the 
seaport  for  Paris 
and  the  great 
forwarding  port 
for  northern 
France.  Large 
ocean  vessels  de- 
liver and  receive 
their  passengers 
and  goods  at 
Havre.  A  num- 
ber of  steamship 
lines  from  New  York  and  other  great  ports  termi- 
nate there.  Ships  at  the  wharves  are  almost  continually 
unloading  American  wheat  and  cotton. 

Lyons  is,  next  to  Paris,  the  largest  manufacturing 
city  of  France.  It  is  a  great  silk-producing  and  silk- 
manufacturing  center.  Many  thousands  of  people  in 
southern  France  are  engaged  in  raising  nuilberry  trees 


C'op.vri.i.'lit  by  Underwood  it  I'ndcrwuud,  N.  Y. 

Champs  Elysees 


54 


EUROPE 


and  feeding  their  leaves  to  silkworms,  and  many  thou- 
sands more  are  employed  in  the  silk  mills  at  Lyons. 
Large  quantities  of  woolen  goods  also  are  manufactured 
there. 

The  port  of  Marseilles  is  situated  on  the  southern 
coast  not  far  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone  River.  Its 
importance  is  increased  by  the  fact  that  the  Rhone,  in 
places,    is  too    shallow    to    admit   the   largest    vessels. 


In  the  Porcelain  District,  Limoges 

Grain,  silk,  coffee,  and  other  goods  are  unloaded  at 
Marseilles  and  forwarded  by  smaller  vessels  and  rail- 
roads to  the  Rhone  valley  and  the  interior  of  France. 
It  is  an  ancient  city.  Navigators  for  many  centuries 
have  found  shelter  in  its  harbor,  and  it  is  still  the  lead- 
ing port  of  the  IMediterranean. 

There  are  several  other  important  cities.  Rouen  is 
the  greatest  cotton -manufacturing  city  of  France.  Bor- 
deaux is  the  leading  wine  port  of  the  world.  St.  Etienne 
is  particularly  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  ribbons. 
Over  forty  thousand  people  in  that  city  and  its  vicinity 
are  engaged  in  the  ribbon  industry. 


THE   NETHERLANDS 


1.  Can    you    give    reasons    why    France    is    favorably    situated    for 
commerce? 

2.  About  how  far  is  Havre  from  Paris? 

3.  Havre  has  a  large  trade  with  Brazil.     Name  a  product  that  is 
probably  imported  into  France  from  that  country. 

4.  Name  goods  that  ships  would  be  likely  to  take  to  South  America 
in  making  the  return  voyage  from  Havre. 

5.  Large  quantities  of  wool  are  imported  into  France  from  the  coun- 
tries that  border  on  the  Plata  River.    What  countries  are  they? 

6.  Bordeaux 
is  near  the  mouth 
of  what  river? 

7.  At  Limoges 
fine  porcelain  is 
made.  Where  is  it 
situated? 

8.  About  how 
far  from  Lyons  is 
St.  Etienne? 

9.  Brest  and 
Cherbourg  are 
French  naval  sta- 
tions. Where  are 
they? 

10.  What  city 
of  France  is  di- 
rectly opposite 
Dover,  England? 

n.  Lille  is 
noted  for  its  woolen  manufactures.    In  what  part  of  France  is  it? 

12.    Sketch  a  map  of  France  and  locate  the  most  important  cities  and 
towns. 

10.  The  Netherlands 
Across  the  North  Sea  east  of  England  is  the  small 
country  called  the  Netherlands.  The  name,  which 
means  the  Lowlands,  is  a  very  proper  one,  since  this  is 
the  lowest  and  flattest  country  in  Europe.  It  is  also 
sometimes  called  Holland.  Not  only  is  the  country 
very  flat,  but  much  of  it  is  below  the  level  of  the  sea. 
In  fact  the  sea  once  covered  a  portion  of  it,  but  has  been 


A  Village  Street  in  Holland 


56  '  EUROPE 

driven  back  by  the  Dutch  iDhabitants.  The  methods 
by  which  these  people  have  extended  the  borders  of 
their  little  country  and  have  gained  homes  and  fertile 
farms  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean  show  great  energy 
and  skill. 

If  we  were  to  visit  Holland,  our  attention  would  be 
attracted  at  once  by  the  dikes,  the  canals,  and  the  great 
windmills. 

The  dikes  are  huge  embankments  that  hold  back  the 
ocean.  Some  of  these  are  over  three  hundred  feet  thick 
and  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  high.  A  body  of  water  is 
removed  in  this  way.  A  dike  is  first  extended  across  an 
arm  of  the  sea,  and  then  the  water  of  the  enclosed  lake 
is  pumped  up  high  enough  to  flow  over  into  the  ocean. 
This  often  requires  the  work  of  immense  pumps  for 
many  months,  and  in  some  cases  even  years. 

Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  have  been  expended 
in  constructing  dikes,  and  it  takes  several  millions  every 
year  to  keep  them  in  repair.  There  are  now  about  two 
thousand  miles  of  dikes  in  the  country,  and  the  people 
are  continually  building  more.  A  long  dike,  now  under 
construction,  will  shut  out  the  great  body  of  water 
called  the  Zuyder  Zee.  This  will  add  to  the  territory  of 
the  Dutch  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  excellent  farming 
land. 

During  the  stormy  winter  season  the  dikes  are  care- 
fully watched.  If  a  leak  is  discovered  by  a  watchman, 
an  alarm  bell  is  rung,  and  all  the  men,  women,  and 
children  of  the  vicinity  must  hasten  to  the  spot  to  assist 
in  stopping  the  water.  A  small  leak  would  soon  become 
larger,  and  in  a  short  time  there  would  be  a  terrible  flood. 


THE   XETHElir.AXDS 


57 


After  a  dike  lias  been  built  and  the  water  removed 
there  are  further  difficulties  to  contend  with.  More 
water  comes  in  the  form  of  rain,  and  this  must  be 
continually  pumped  out  that  the  land  may  be  dry 
enough  for  healthful  homes  and  for  crops.  For  the 
purpose  of  draining  the  land  the  country  is  covered 
with   a  network   of   ditches   and  canals.     The    surplus 


A  Scene  in  Holland 

water  runs  into  ditches,  and  from  these  is  pumped  up 
into  canals  with  higher  banks.  From  these  the  water 
is  again  pumped  into  still  higher  and  larger  canals.  It 
is  finally  raised,  in  this  way,  above  the  level  of  the  ocean 
and  flows  out.  At  the  points  where  the  water  from 
the  great  canals  flows  into  the  ocean  there  are  gates 
which  prevent  it  from  flowing  back  at  high  tide. 

The  Dutch  canals  lia\'e  many  other  important  uses. 
They  are  used  for  traveling  and  transportation.  The 
farmer  rows  to  the  pasture  to  milk  his  cows  or  to  the 


58 


EUROPE 


fields  to  gather  the  crops.     The  people  often  travel  in 
boats  to  market  and  to  church. 

It  is  said  that  there  are  over  fifty  thousand  people  in 
the  Netherlands  whose  homes  are  in  barges  on  the 
canals.  Many  of  them  spend  their  whole  lives  there 
from  infancy  to  old  age.     They  move  about  from  place 


On  the  Canal  at  Rotterdam 

to  place  to  carry  on  trade.  The  barges  are  moved  by 
sails  when  the  wind  is  favorable,  but  much  of  the  time 
men,  women,  and  children  are  seen  walking  on  the  banks 
and  pulling  at  the  barge  ropes.  Plants  and  birds,  and 
even  cows,  are  sometimes  kept  on  these  barges,  or  house 
boats.  About  thirty  thousand  children  in  Holland  live 
in  this  way,  and  since  they  move  about  so  much  it  is 
difficult  for  the  government  to  be  sure  that  they  all 
attend  the  schools. 

During  the  winter  months  the  canals  are  frozen  over, 
and  there  is  much  skating  everywhere.  The  farmers 
skate  to  market  and  the  children  to  school. 

The  Dutch  people  are  very  thrifty  j  there  are  almost 


THE   NETHERLANDS 


59 


no  beggars  among  them.  They  have  gained  their  wealth 
largely  by  cultivating  the  land.  The  level  lowland, 
particularly  that  part  which  was  once  the  bed  of  the 
ocean,  is  very  fertile  and  produces  large  crops.  The 
greater  part,  however,  is  used  for  pasturing.  In 
the  moist  climate  that  prevails  along  the  western  coast 
grass  grows  so  abundantly  tliat  the  land  is  very  profit- 


A  Home  on  the  Canal 

able  for  pasturing  farm  animals.  Across  the  level 
farms  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  swine  are  to  be  seen  in 
every  direction.  The  butter  and  cheese  of  the  Nether- 
lands have  an  excellent  reputation  and  are  exported 
in  large  amounts.  Many  vegetables  and  flowers  are 
raised,  and  sold  in  the  cities  of  Europe. 

Holland,  of  course,  has  no  water  power,  and  since  it 
has  but  little  coal  manufacturing  is  by  means  of  im- 
ported coal  and  windmills.  Winds  from  the  ocean  blow 
very  regularly  over  the  flat  country,  and  windmills  are 
used  not  only  to  drive  the  pumps  for  draining  the  land 
but  also  to  finmish  pow(M'  for  various  purposes.  Nearly 
every  farmer  in  tlie  country  has  a  windmill. 


60 


EUROPE 


The  Dutch  people  deserve  much  credit  for  the  courage 
and  patience  with  which  they  have  overcome  the  greatest 
difficulties.  They  not  only  have  gained  their  land  by 
a  struggle  against  the  sea,  but  they  are  obliged  to  con- 
tinue the  struggle.      A   traveler  in  the  country  once 

remarked  that  he 
was  surprised 
that  Dutchmen 
ever  dared  to  go 
to  sleep.  These 
people  are  noted 
for  extreme  neat- 
ness. The  time 
that  the  women 
can  spare  from 
working  in  the 
fields  and  making 
the  clothing  for 
their  families  is 
spent  in  keeping 
their  homes  spot- 
less. 

In  the  cities 
and  larger  towns  the  customs  and  dress  of  the  Dutch 
people  are  much  like  those  of  other  Europeans  and 
Americans,  but  in  some  of  the  provinces  the  old  dress 
is  still  to  be  seen.  The  men  wear  very  broad  trousers, 
and  many  of  the  women  wear  a  great  number  of  skirts 
and  petticoats  to  give  themselves  a  broad  appearance. 
Little  Dutch  children,  when  dressed  in  their  best  cos- 
tumes,  are  as  gay  as  butterflies.     They   clatter  along 


.li  A  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Dutch  Costumes 


THE    NETIIEIU.ANDS 


Gl 


to  school  in  wooden  shoes,  but  leave  these  at  the  school- 
house  door  and  sit  in  their  stockings. 

Although  the  home  country  of  the  Dutch  people  is 
small,  they  have  gained  important  colonial  possessions, 
and  they  own  many  ships  that  are  engaged  in  carrying 
on  trade  with  the  colonies  and  with  other  countries. 
The  most  important  of  the  colonies  are  several  large 


Amsterdam 

islands  and  a  great  number  of  smaller  islands  in  the 
East  Indies.  They  also  own  Dutch  Guiana  and  several 
small  islands  of  the  West  Indies.  All  the  colonies  of 
the  Netherlands  together  contain  about  sixty  times  as 
much  territory  as  the  home  country. 

The  three  important  cities  of  the  Netherlands  are 
Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  and  The  Hague.  The  king  or 
queen  is  always  crowned  at  Amsterdam,  but  the  royal 
residence  is  at  The  Hague,  as  well  as  most  of  the 
government  buildings. 

Amsterdam  is  built  upon  a  great  number  of  islands 
joined  together  by  about  three  hundred  bridges.     It  is 


62 


EUROPE 


the  great  commercial  center  for  trade  with  the  Dutch 
colonies  as  well  as  with  other  countries.  It  is  a  great 
market  for  coffee  and  spices  from  the  East,  It  is  spe- 
cially noted  for  the  industry  of  cutting  and  polishing  dia- 
monds, most  of  which  come  from  the  mines  of  South 
Africa.  Hundreds  of  men,  women,  and  children  are 
employed  in  the  diamond  factories.     As  diamonds  come 


The  Hague 

from  the  mines  they  are  usually  imperfect  in  form.  In 
the  factories  they  are  split  and  polished  and  thus  changed 
to  tlie  sparkling  gems  that  we  see.  The  tools  for  work- 
ing upon  diamonds  must  themselves  contain  diamonds, 
because  nothing  else  would  be  hard  enough  for  the  pur- 
pose. All  the  diamond  dust  is  carefully  saved  for  polish- 
ing other  diamonds.  The  saws  used  for  cutting  are 
made  of  wires  covered  with  a  coating  of  diamond  dust. 


1.  Tell  briefly  about  the  early  Dutch  settlements  in  the  United  j^tates. 

2.  Name  five  of  the  largest  islands  of  the  East  Indies. 


BELGIUM 


63 


3.  On  wliat  oceans  would  a  vessel  sail  in  going  from  Amsterdam  to 
Java  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  (jood  Hope? 

4.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Amsterdam  to  the  Cape  of  (!oo<l  Hope? 

5.  About  how  long  is  the  voyage  from  Amsterdam  to  Dutch  Guiana? 

6.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Amsterdam  to  Rotterdam? 

7.  In  what  direction  is  The  Hague  from  Amsterdam? 

8.  In  what  direction  is  Amsterdam  from  London? 

9.  Haarlem   is   noted   for   the   production  of   immense   quantities  of 
flower  bulbs,  especially  tulips.     Near  what  large  city  is  it? 

10.  Why  can 
railroads  be  built 
in  the  Netherlands 
more  easily  than 
in  a  country  like 
Scotland? 

11.  At  the 
ports  of  Amster- 
dam and  Rotter- 
dam large  quanti- 
ties of  goods  are 
received  on  their 
way  to  and  from 
Germany.  Can  you 
tell  why? 


The  Mound  at  Waterloo 


II.  Belgium 

Between  France  and  the  Netherlands  is  the  little 
country  of  Belgium.  Sometimes  the  name  Netherlands 
is  regarded  as  including  Belgium.  The  part  along  the 
coast  is  low  and  level,  but  the  southeastern  part  is  a 
hilly  region  with  woodland  and  waterfalls. 

In  its  early  history  Belgium  suffered  much  from 
European  wars.  The  great  battle  of  Waterloo,  in 
which  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  defeated,  was  fought  on 
Belgian  soil,  and  a  large  mound  now  marks  the  scene." 
In  the  year  1840  the  great  powers  of  Europe  agreed 
that  Belgium  should  be  regarded  as  neutral  territory  in 
time  of  war  and  that  the  armies  of  other  nations  might 
not  enter  it  or  pass  over  it.     Since  the  country  has  thus 


64 


EUROPE 


been  freed  from  the  need  of  maintaining  a  large  army, 
it  has  been  at  hberty  to  devote  itself  to  the  pursuits  of 
peace  and  has  rapidly  advanced  in  prosperity. 

Among  the  hills  of  Belgium  there  are  rich  mines  of 
coal  and  iron  besides  other  minerals.  On  account  of 
this  advantage  the  people  do  a  large  amount  of  manu- 
facturing. The  country  is 
so  small  that  coal  and  iron 
are  transported  to  any  part 
of  it  with  but  little  expense, 
and  manufacturing  towns 
have  sprung  up  in  every 
quarter.  Because  of  so  much 
manufacturing  Belgium 
affords  employment  to  a 
great  number  of  people.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  densely 
populated  regions  in  the 
world.  It  is  only  a  little 
more  than  one  third  as  large 
as  our  state  of  Maine,  but 
contains  ten  times  as  many  people. 

The  demand  for  food  to  supply  such  a  population 
leads  naturally  to  the  use  of  all  available  land  for  farm- 
ing, and  about  one  half  of  the  people  are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Most  of  the  farms  are  so  small  that  they 
would  seem  to  us  like  mere  gardens,  but  the  farm  work 
is  done  with  great  care  and  skill  and  the  land  yields 
abundant  crops.  The  Belgians  are  able  to  produce  the 
greater  part  of  their  food  supplies.  Among  other  crops 
much  flax  is  raised  for  the  manufacture  of  linen.     The 


Spinning  Flax 


BELGIUM 


65 


best  linen  in  the  world  is  produced  in  the  valley  of  the 
Lys  River.  The  water  of  that  river  is  very  pure  and 
readily  dissolves  or  softens  substances  in  the  dax  straw 
so  that  the  fibers  are  easily  separated. 

Although  Belgium  is  so  small,  it  is  the  home  of  two 
distinct  peoples,  the  Flemings  in  the  north  and  the  Wal- 


Cnpyright  by  T'nderwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


Stacks  of  Flax  in  Belgium. 

loons  in  the  south.  The  Flemings  speak  the  Flemish 
language,  which  resembles  the  Dutch  and  German  lan- 
guages, and  most  of  the  Walloons  speak  French,  but  for 
several  centuries  these  people  have  been  united  for  the 
defense  and  support  of  their  common  country.  All 
seem  fond  of  their  native  land,  and  but  very  few  are 
inclined  to  emigrate. 

A  large  section  of  central  Africa,  called  the  Congo 
State,  belongs  to  Belgium.  Tlie  Belgians  were  promi- 
nent in  the  exploration  of  Africa,  and  in  the  year  1885, 
by  agreement  among  the  great  powers,  the  Congo  State 


66 


EUROPE 


was  placed  under  the  charge  of  the  Belgian  king.     In 
1908  it  was  formally  annexed  to  the  country. 

In  a  land  with  such  a  dense  population  there  are 
naturally  many  towns  and  cities.  In  some  sections 
the  country  seems  to  travelers  to  be  entirely  covered 

with  towns  and 
villages.  The 
train  no  sooner 
passes  out  of  one 
than  the  houses 
of  another  begin 
to  appear. 

Many  of  the 
cities  of  Belgium 
are  connected 
with  the  sea  by 
canals  and  rivers 
deep  enough  to 
-,.„   „    .  .     .   .  admit  larp^e  ves- 

Milk  Cart  in  Antwerp  » 

sels.  It  has  more 
navigable  waterways  and  railroads,  in  proportion  to  its 
size,  than  any  other  country. 

Antwerp  is  the  largest  city  and  the  principal  seaport 
of  the  country.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  ports  of 
Europe.  Some  of  the  great  steamship  lines  from 
New  York  terminate  there.  It  is  a  great  market  for 
ivory  and  rubber  from  Africa  and  is  the  home  of 
many  wealthy  merchants.  It  has  a  celebrated  cathe- 
dral which  can  be  seen  a  long  distance  from  the  city. 
In  this  cathedral  there  are  famous  pictures  by  the  cele- 
brated painter  Rubens,  who  was  a  native  of  Antwerp. 


BELGIUM 


()7 


Brussels,  the  capital,  is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
carpets  and  laces.  It  is  a  beautiful  city  and  is  some- 
times called  the  "  Paris  of  Belgium."  Its  people  speak 
the  language  of  the  French,  whom  they  resemble  in 
their  habits.  This  city  contains  a 
museums  and  famous  works  of  art. 


great   number  of 


View  in  Antwerp 

Liege  is  the  busiest  industrial  city.  Besides  its  woolen 
and  linen  manufactures  it  produces  a  large  amount  of 
silk  and  silk  goods,  cut  glass,  and  fire-arms. 

Ghent  is  a  center  for  the  flax  and  linen  industry.  It 
is  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  linen  cloth  and  laces. 
It  also  has  many  cotton  factories. 

1.  About  how  much  smaller  is  Belgium  than  the  Netherlands? 

2.  About  how  many  countries  of  the  size  of  Belgium  would  it  take 
to  make  a  country  as  large  as  France? 

3.  Many  of  the  towns  of  Belgium  have  two  names.    Can  you  give  the 
reason  for  this? 

4.  Through  what  country  besides  lielgium  do  ships  pass  in  going  from 
Antwerp  to  the  sea? 

5.  About  how  far  is  Antwerp  from  the  sea? 

6.  In  what  part  of  the  country  is  Brussels? 


EUROPE 


7.  In  what  direction  is  Liege  from  Brussels? 

8.  On  what  river  is  Ghent? 


City  Hall,  Brussels 


9.  Mechlin  is 
noted  for  its  hand- 
made lace.  In 
what  direction  is 
it  from  Antwerp? 

10.  Ostend  is  a 
fishing  port  and 
a  famous  watering 
place.  Where  is  it 
situated? 

11.  The  famous 
belfry  of  Bruges, 
350  feet  high,  was 
built  more  than 
500  years  ago. 
About  how  far  is 
Bruges  from  Os- 
tend? 

12.  Sketch  a 
map  of  both  Bel- 
gium and  the 
Netherlands  and 
locate  the  most 
important  cities  of 
the  two  countries. 


12.   Spain  and  Portugal 

The  large  peninsula  in  the  southwestern  part  of 
Europe,  sometimes  called  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  con- 
sists of  the  two  countries,  Spain  and  Portugal.  These 
are  so  similar  to  each  other  in  respect  to  land  surface, 
climate,  and  industries,  that  they  may  well  be  considered 
togetlier. 

This  peninsula  was  long  ago  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  When  this  was  broken  up,  tribes  of  Goths 
from    the    north    overran    the    northern    part.      After- 


SPAIN   AND   POIITUGAL 


60 


wards  the  Moors,  who  were  a  dark-skinned  people  from 
northern  Africa,  crossed  over  to  Spain,  and  in  hard- 
fought  battles  drove  the  inhabitants  to  the  north  and 
occupied  the  greater  part  of  the  country. 

These  Moors  were  Mohammedans,  or  followers  of  the 
prophet  Mohammed,  whose  teachings  were  contained 
in  their  sacred 
book  called 
the  Koran. 
The  Christian 
religion  had 
been  previ- 
ously estab- 
lished in 
Spain.  A  long 
series  of  wars 
now  t  o  o  ]v 
place  between 
the  Moham- 
medans and 
the  Christians. 

Although  the  Moors  were  cruel  in  war,  they  were 
energetic  and  able,  and  made  many  improvements  in 
the  country.  They  developed  agriculture  by  irrigation, 
and  constructed  magnificent  buildings.  Among  the 
Moors  were  many  learned  men  as  well  as  valiant  war- 
riors, and  they  founded  schools  and  lii)raries. 

The  most  famous  structure  of  the  Moors,  the  ruins  of 
which  are  a  marvel  to  travelers,  is  the  fortress  of  the 
Alhambra,  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Spain.  It  was 
erected  on  a  steep  cliff  that  rises  above   the   cit}-   of 


Roman  Aqueduct  in  Spain 


70 


EUROPE 


Granadca,  which,  in  the  time  of  the  Moors,  had  400,000 
inhabitants.  The  walls  of  the  palace  were  colored  and 
gilded,  and  decorated  by  the  greatest  artists. 

For    eight 
centuries    the 
Moors    were 
at    war    with 
the  Spaniards 
of  the   north, 
who  gradually 
forced  them 
back     to     the 
south,  and  in 
1492     drove 
them    out    of 
the  country. 
After    this, 
Spain  became 
one   of   the 
most  powerful 
nations  of  Eu- 
rope.   Spanish 
sailors     made 
voyages  to  all 
parts  of  the  world,  discovering  new  lands  and  claim- 
ing them  as  Spanish  possessions.     At  one  time  Spain 
claimed  nearly  all  of  South  America  and  a  portion  of 
North  America,  besides  many  islands  and  other  lands. 
Portugal  was  once  a  part  of  Spain,  but  in  the  twelfth 
century  became  a  separate  nation.     The  Portuguese  also 
naturally  became  a  seafaring  people  and  gained  many 


The  Court  of  Lions  in  the  Alhambra 


SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL 


foreign  possessions.  In  South  Americca  they  held  Brazil 
for  ca  time,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  country 
still  speak  the  Portuguese  language.  The  Portuguese 
have  large  possessions  along  the  eastern  and  western 
coasts  of  Africa  and  own  several  groups  of  islands. 

During  recent  centuries  the  power  and  importance  of 
the  peoples  of  this  peninsula  have  greatly  declined,  and 
they  are  now  among  the  weaker  nations  of  the  world. 


Street  in  Seville 

In  dealing  with  their  colonies  the  English  and  the 
Spaniards  show  a  marked  contrast.  Both  nations  had 
a  small  amount  of  territory  at  home  and  both  gained 
large  foreign  possessions ;  ])ut  while  Great  Britain  has 
steadily  increased  in  power,  Spain  has  steadily  declined. 
The  British  people  have  sought  to  improve  the  lands 
and  the  peoples  that  have  come  into  their  power.  Tlieir 
purpose  has  been,  not  simply  to  gain  wealth  for  them- 
selves,  but  also   to  make   the   new  countries  desirable 


72 


EUROPE 


parts  of  the  British  Empire.  The  Spaniards,  on  the 
other  hand,  after  discovering  and  conquering  new 
countries,  have  generally  treated  the  natives  harshly. 
Their  principal  purpose  has  been  to  enrich  themselves 
and  to  carry  their  riches  home  to  the  mother  country. 
Wealth  so  easily  gained  has  led  to  a  life  of  ease  and 
has  tended  to  ruin  the  Spaniards,  as  it  led  to  the  ruin 
of  the  ancient  Romans. 


The  Crowd  at  a  Bull  Fight 

The  popularity  of  the  bull  fight  as  an  amusement 
still  continues  in  Spain  and  in  many  Spanish-American 
countries.  It  may  be  regarded  as  an  indication  of  the 
fondness  for  pleasure  and  the  indifference  to  cruelty  that 
have  appeared  in  the  history  of  the  Spanish  people. 
Large  herds  of  bulls,  selected  for  their  fierceness,  are 
still  raised  in  Spain  for  the  sole  purpose  of  producing 
bloody  scenes  for  the  entertainment  of  the  people. 

The  Spanish  colonies  have  one  after  another  revolted 


SPAIN    AND    PORTUGAL 


73 


and  separated  themselves  from  the  power  of  Spain. 
This  is  because  Spain  has  treated  them  so  cruelly. 

The  failure  of  both  Spain  and  Portugal  to  become 
permanently  prosperous  and  powerful  has  been  partly 
due  to  the  lack  of  advantages  at  home.  Ranges  of 
mountains 
not  far  from 
the  coast  ex- 
tend nearly 
around  the 
peninsula. 
The  interior 
is  crossed  by 
mountains 
and  hills.  The 
rivers  are  not 
navigable  for 
long  distances 
and  it  is  not 
practicable  to 

make  many  canals.  Spain  is  therefore  deprived  of  the 
advantage  that  France  possesses,  of  being  able  to  trans- 
port goods  by  water  to  various  parts  of  the  country. 

Another  disadvantage  is  the  arid  climate  of  a  large 
part  of  the  peninsula.  In  the  mountainous  section  of 
the  northwest  there  is  a  good  supply  of  moisture,  but 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  tableland  of  the  interior 
there  is  not  sulUcient  rain  for  agriculture. 


A  Spanish  Plowman 


1.  What  bodies  of  water  l)or(lcr  on  the  Spaiii.sli  I'eniiisula? 

2.  Name  three  of  tlie  most  important  rivers. 

3.  Name  and  locate  three  mountain  ranges  of  tlie  peninsula. 


74  europp: 

4.  Where  are  Cape  Finisterre  and  Cape  St.  Vincent? 

5.  Name  some  states  along  our  Atlantic  coast  which  have  about  the 
same  latitude  as  Spain. 

6.  The  Balearic  Islands  belong  to  Spain.     Where  are  they  situated? 

7.  The  Canary  Islands  also  belong  to  Spain.     In  what  direction  are 
they  from  the  home  country? 

8.  The  Azores,  the  Madeira  Islands,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  be- 
long to  Portugal.     Where  are  they  situated? 

9.  Name  some  noted  Spanish   and   Portuguese  explorers,  and   state 
what  each  accomplished. 

10.    Spain  is  about  how  many  times  as  large  as  Portugal? 

13.  Industries  and  Cities 

The  industries  of  the  Spanish  people  have  been  much 
neglected.  For  hundreds  of  years  the  attention  of  the 
government  and  the  leading  men  has  been  given  more 
to  the  attempt  to  gain  wealth  from  the  colonies  than 
to  the  improvement  of  conditions  at  home.  The  result 
is  that  Spain  is  far  behind  the  average  of  the  neighbor- 
ing countries  of  Europe.  The  country  people  in  Spain 
and  Portugal  are  very  ignorant,  and  their  way  of  living 
is  crude  and  simple.  The  roads  are  everywhere  gener- 
ally poor.  In  the  mountainous  regions  goods  are  still 
often  carried  on  the  backs  of  donkeys.  Many  farmers 
plow  their  ground  with  pieces  of  wood  tipped  with  iron. 
On  account  of  the  want  of  enterprise  some  articles,  such 
as  grain,  cattle,  and  coal,  are  now  imported,  whereas 
they  might  be  produced  at  home  in  more  than  sufficient 
quantities  to  supply  the  Spanish  people. 

At  present,  however,  there  are  reasons  for  hoping  for 
better  things.  Since  the  close  of  the  Spanish-American 
War,  by  which  Spain  lost  Porto  Rico,  Cuba,  and  the 
Philippines,  the  last  of  her  important  colonies,  many 
Spaniards  have  returned  from  these  colonies  to  Spain. 


INDUSTRIES    AXl)    CITIES 


They  are  beginning  to  realize  the  need  of  devoting  tlieni- 
selves  to  improvements  in  the  home  country. 

Among  the  hills  and  valleys  of  the  arid  plateau 
region  of  tlie  interior  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  roam, 
feeding  upon  the  scanty  grasses.  In  the  northwestern 
part,  where  a 
better  supply  of 
moisture  pro- 
duces a  richer 
growth  of  grass, 
many  herds  of 
cattle  are  raised. 

Besides  the 
lack  of  moisture 
the  temperature 
of  the  interior 
is  not  favorable 
to  the  growth 
of  a  great  vari- 
ety of  crops. 
Although  the 
summers  are 
warm,  the  ele- 
vation of  the 
land  renders  the  winters  cold.  Considerable  wheat  is 
raised  in  Spain  because  that  grain  requires  less  moisture 
than  many  other  crops. 

In  some  of  the  river  valleys  and  along  the  coast 
agriculture  is  in  a  more  prosperous  condition  on  account 
of  irrigation.  In  the  south  the  Moors  introduced  an 
elaborate  system  of  irrigation,  and  this  has  been  con- 


^'"^'^i  /mm 

fei^      • 

-  ,'                ■' '        -          .•    \ 

% 

fe^s 

£^«----T          ^Mf^liill-A  A  ^a 

W 

'hH 

Hpfiil 

Bridge  and  Farm  in  tiie  Hill  Country 


76 


EUROPE 


tinued  by  the  Spaniards.  In  the  warm  climate  of  that 
region  the  rich  land  is  supplied  with  water  from  moun- 
tain streams  and  is  very  productive.  Grains  and  fruits 
grow  in  abundance,  as  they  grow  in  southern  California. 


We  are    all    familiar  with 


Malaga 


grapes, 


which 


the 
the 


Malaga 


raised     in 
vicinity    of 
city  of 

and  come  to  us 
packed  in  chips 
of  cork.  Many 
Valencia  or- 
anges formerly 
came  from 
the  port  of  Va- 
lencia. Along 
the  entire  Span- 
ish coast  from 
Valencia  to  Gib- 
raltar the  coun- 
try abounds  in 
grapes,  for  wine 
and  raisins, 
oranges^  lem- 
ons, figs,  and 
other  tropical 
fruits.  There  are  many  olive  orchards  in  southern  Spain. 
The  chief  food  of  Spanish  peasants  consists  of  bread 
and  olives.  Olive  oil,  which  is  pressed  from  ripe  olives, 
is  generally  used  in  Spain  instead  of  butter. 

Portugal  also  is  noted  for  the  production  of  excellent 


Odp.Mi^'ht  li\  I  ndirwdod  &  I'nderwood,  N.  Y. 

Picking  Malaga  Grapes 


IXDUSTRIKS    AND    (  ITIKS 


77 


fruits,  particularly  grapes  and  olives.  It  is  a  moun- 
tainous country,  and  as  the  westerly  winds  pass  over 
it  they  leave  more  moisture  than  on  the  tablelands 
beyond.  The  hilly  pastures  support  many  cattle  and 
sheep. 

Portugal  produces  the  greater  part  of  the  world's  sup- 
ply of  cork,  although  some  comes  from  Spain  and  from 
northern  Africa.  The  cork  tree  is  an  evergreen  oak 
with  very  thick  and  soft  bark.     If  when  the  outer  bark 


Royal  Palace  at  Madrid 

is  removed  care  is  taken  not  to  injure  the  inner  layer,  a 
new  coat  of  cork  will  grow  in  ten  or  twelve  years. 

One  of  the  most  prosperous  industries  of  Spain  is 
mining.  The  country  produces  a  large  quantity  of 
silver,  copper,  and  quicksilver. 

Neither  Spain  nor  Portugal  has  done  much  manu- 
facturing. One  reason  for  this  has  been  the  ignorance 
of  the  people.  Although  the  Spanish  Peninsula  con- 
tains coal  that  might  be  used  to  produce  power  for  fac- 
tories, but  little  has  been  emiDloyed  for  that  purpose. 


78 


EUROPE 


Most  of  the  cities,  as  would  be  expected,  are  situated 
along  the  coast  or  near  it.  Madrid,  however,  the  lar- 
gest city  of  Spain,  is  located  on  the  tableland  of  the 
interior.  Its  present  size  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  a  convenient  center  for  the  railroads  that  cross  the 
country.  It  has  become  both  the  political  center  of  the 
country  and  the  commercial  center  of  the  interior. 


The 


The  Docks  at  Barcelona 


royal  residence  at  Madrid  is  one  of  the  finest  palaces  in 
the  world.  In  its  armory  travelers  are  sliown  the 
armor  worn  by  Christopher  Columbus  and  the  swords 
used  by  Cortez  and  Pizarro. 

Barcelona  is  the  second  city  in  size  and  the  principal 
seaport.  It  is  also  the  largest  manufacturing  center. 
More  than  100,000  people  in  Barcelona  and  vicinity  are 
employed  in  cotton  factories  where  as  many  as  400,000 
bales  of  cotton  are  used  every  year.  The  greater  part 
of  the  raw  cotton  is  imported  from  the  United  States. 


INDUSTRIES   AXl)    CrriKS 


79 


Lisbon  and  Oporto  are  the  chief  cities  of  Portugal. 
Lisbon  has  one  of  the  hnest  harbors  in  Europe.  From 
Oporto  large  quantities  of  port  wine  are  shipped. 

Other  cities  have  an  interest  for  us  because  of  their 
past  renown.  Cordova  was  a  famous  city  hundreds  of 
years  ago.  At  one  time  it  had  nearly  a  million  inhab- 
itants. Granada  was  a  large  and  splen'did  city  in  the 
time  of  the  Moors. 


Toledo 


1.  Toledo  was  once  the  capital  of  Spain.  About  how  far  is 
Madrid? 

2.  In  Seville  there  is  a  famous  Moorish  palace  called  the 
On  what  river  is  Seville? 

3.  In  what  direction  from  Seville  is  Cordova? 

4.  About  how  far  is  Granada  from  the  seacoast? 

5.  Cadiz  was  a  thriving  seaport  in  ancient  times.  About 
is  it  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar? 

6.  In  what  direction  from  Seville  is  Palos,  the  port  from  whicl 
bus  sailed  to  America? 

7.  \  large  amount  of  quicksilver  comes  from  the  mines  of  . 
In  what  range  of  mountains  are  they? 

8.  The  rock  of  Gibraltar  at  the  southern  point  of  Spain  and  1 
and  harbor  at  its  foot  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Why  is  this  roc 
so  highly  by  that  country? 


it  from 
Alcazar. 

how   far 

1  ("olum- 

\lmaden 

lie  tf)wn 
k  pii/ed 


80 


EUROPE 


9.    Commencing  with  Barcelona,  name  in  order  the  important  sea- 
ports of  Spain  on  the  Mediterranean,  including  Cartagena. 

10.  Near  the  mouths  of  what  rivers  are  Lisbon  and  Oporto? 

11.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  showing  the  mountains, 
rivers,  and  cities. 


Gibraltar 


Review 


1.  How  large  a  country  is  France? 

2.  Who  were  the  ancestors  of  the  French  people? 

3.  AVhy  did  the  people  of  France  naturally  unite  in  one  nation? 

4.  Give  incidents  in  the  history  of  the  French. 

5.  Tell  about  their  government  and  possessions. 

6.  Explain  the  advantages  of  the  physical  features  of  the  country. 

7.  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products  of  the  different  sections 
of  France? 

8.  Tell  about  the  number  of  farms. 

9.  Tell  about  the  French  system  rt  farmin;:;. 

10.  Why  is  France  one  of  the  leading  manufacturing  countries? 

11.  What  kind  of  goods  do  th  ;  French  manufacture? 

12.  Describe  the  Riviera. 

13.  Explain  how  attar  of  roses  is  produc:d 

14.  Tell  about  the  origin  of  the  city  of  Paris. 

15.  Give  reasons  why  it  is  a  great  commercial  cencer 

16.  For  what  kind  of  manufacturing  is  Paris  noted? 

17.  Describe  some  of  the  attractive  features  of  Paris. 

18.  Tell  about  the  port  of  Havre. 

19.  For  what  is  Lyons  noted? 

20.  Why  is  Marseilles  an  important  port? 


REVIEW 


81 


21.  Mention  important  facts  connoctotl  with  othor  French  cities. 

22.  Why  is  the  Netherlands  an  appropriate  name? 

23.  Describe  the  dikes  of  the  Netherlands. 

24.  Explain  how  surplus  water  is  removed  from  the  country. 

25.  For  what  purposes  are  Dutch  canals  convenient? 

26.  Tell  about  the 
Dutch  people  wlio  live 
upon  barges. 

27.  Tell  about  farm- 
ing in  the  Netherlands. 

28.  For  what  pur- 
poses are  windmills  used 
in  that  country? 

29.  Explain  some  of 
the  diflriculties  that  besot 
the  Dutch  people. 

;3().    Describe  some 
the  old  costumes  of  thr 
Dutch? 

31.  Tell  about  th^' 
colonial  possessions  nl 
the  Netherlands. 

32.  For  what  is  Am- 
sterdam noted? 

33.  Describe  the  pro- 
cess of  preparing  dia- 
monds. 

34.  Describe  the 
physical  features  of  Bel- 
gium. 

35.  Tell  about  the 
history  of  Belgium 

36 


Moorish  Decoration 


Why  is  Belgium  chiefly  a  manufacturing  country? 

37.  How  dense  is  the  population  of  the  country? 

38.  Why  is  it  not  necessary  for  the  Belgians  to  import  much  food? 

39.  What  special  advantage  has  Belgium  for  the  production  of  linen? 

40.  Tell  about  the  two  peoples  of  the  country. 

41.  Why  does  the  Congo  State  belong  to  Belgium? 

42.  Tell  about  the  towns  and  cities  of  the  country. 

43.  Describe  the  city  of  Antwerp. 

44.  Describe  the  city  of  Brussels. 

45.  For  what  is  Liege  noted  ? 

46.  For  what  is  Ghent  noted? 


82  EUROPE 

■47.  Tell  briefly  about  the  early  history  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

4S.  Tell  about  the  Moors. 

49.  Describe  the  Alhambra. 

50.  What  did  Spain  accomplish  after  the  Moors  were  expelled? 

51.  Give  an  account  of  the  Portuguese. 

52.  How  have  England  and  Spain  differed  in  dealing  with  colonies? 

53.  Tell  about  bull  fights  in  Spain. 

54.  Describe  the  physical  features  and  climate  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula. 

55.  Explain  the  condition  of  the  industries  of  the  Spanish  people. 

56.  Tell  about  stock-raising  and  agriculture  in  the  interior  of  Spain. 

57.  Tell  about  agriculture  in  southern  Spain. 

58.  Describe  agricultural  conditions  in  Portugal. 

59.  Tell  about  the  cork  industry. 

60.  What  minerals  are  found  in  Spain? 

61 .  Why  has  there  been  but  little  manufacturing  in  Spain  and  Portugal  ? 

62.  Describe  the  city  of  Madrid. 

63.  What  city  is  noted  for  cotton  manufacturing? 

64.  Tell  about  Lisbon  and  Oporto. 

65.  Tell  about  two  ancient  cities  of  Spain. 


14.   Norway 

Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  were  once  a  single 
nation  under  the  same  ruler.  A  thousand  years  ago 
their  people  spoke  a  common  language,  called  Old  Norse; 
Norwegian  and  Danish  are  almost  the  same  language, 
and  Swedish  is  very  similar. 

Alwut  four  hundred  years  ago  Sweden  became  inde- 
pendent, and  about  a  century  ago  Norway  was  separated 
from  Denmark  and  united  with  Sweden.  After  that 
time  Norway  and  Sweden  had  separate  governments, 
but  were  ruled  by  the  same  king.  Differences  between 
the  two  peoples  in  respect  to  both  home  matters  and 
relations  with  foreign  countries  led  to  dissatisfaction, 
and  in  the  year  1905  by  a  peaceful  agreement  they 
became  entirely  separate  kingdoms. 

In  respect  to  its  location  and  climate  Norway  is  one 


NORWAY 


83 


of  the  most  wonderful  countries  in  the  world.  It  lies 
so  far  north  that  nearly  one  third  of  it  is  witliin  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  its  southern  extremity  is  but  little 
farther  south  than  the  southern  part  of  Greenland. 
Even  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country  the  days  are 
so  long  in  midsummer  that  newspapers  are  read  upon 


A  Fjord  in  Norway 

the  streets  at  ten  o'clock  at  night.  The  mild  climate 
of  this  northern  country  is  due  mainly  to  the  direction 
of  the  prevailing  winds.  Norway  would  be  no  more 
suitable  for  human  habitation  than  Greenland  is  if  it 
were  not  warmed  by  westerly  winds  from  the  ocean. 

The  greater  part  of  Norway  is  a  mountainous  plateau 
that  remains  from  the  wearing  down  of  a  high  mountain 
range.  During  this  process  of  wearing,  either  glaciers  or 
streams  of  swiftly  running  Avater  formed  long  and  deep 
valleys  extending  in  the  direction  of  the  sea.  By  the 
sinking  of  the  land  of  western  Europe  many  islands  were 


84 


EUROPE 


formed  along  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  the  long  valleys 
became  deep  bays  or  inlets,  which  in  that  country  are 
called  fjords.  Some  of  these  extend  into  the  land  for 
nearly  one  hundred  miles. 

The  fjords  are  so  well  protected  by  the  surrounding 
mountains   that  vessels  may  safely  enter  them   at  all 
times  and  find  shelter.     This  advantage  has  tended  to 
make  the  inhabitants  a  seafaring  people.     The  North- 
men   in    their 
warships  be- 
came a  terror 
to  many  lands. 
They     not 
only     invaded 
the    neighbor- 
ing   countries 
of  Europe,  but 
discovered  Ice- 
la  n  d        and 
Greenland,  and 
A  Viking  Ship  even     reached 

North  America  several  centuries  before  it  was  discovered 
by  Columbus.  One  of  the  ships  of  these  old  Vikings 
is  to  be  seen  in  the  museum  at  Christiania.  It  was 
found  beneath  a  mound  near  one  of  the  fjords.  Human 
bones  and  other  articles  found  in  the  ship  indicate  that 
it  was  the  burial  place  of  some  Viking  hero.  As  a 
mark  of  honor  he  had  been  buried  in  the  ship  in  which 
he  had  braved  the  sea. 

The  Norwegians  still  build  many  boats  not  only  for 
fishing  in  home  waters  but  also  for  carrying  on  com- 


EUROPE 


merce.    They  have  more  merchant  vessels  upon  the  ocean 
than  any  other  European  nation  except  Great  Britain. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  the  reasons  why 
Norway  is  not  an  agricultural  country.  Even  where 
the  climate  is  mild  enough,  it  is  unprofitable  to  cultivate 

the  soil  be- 
cause of  the 
steep  hills  and 
mountains. 
The  farms  are 
too  small  and 
rough  for  the 
use  of  machin- 
ery. On  ac- 
count of  these 
hard  condi- 
tions, both  in 
Norway  and 
in  portions  of 
Sweden,  many 

Copyri-liti'd  by  Kfystone  View  Co.    f amierS       liaVe 


In  a  Norwegian  Sawmill 


emigrated     to 


America.     They  have  settled  mainly  on  the  level  land 
of  the  Central  States. 

The  forests  of  Norway  in  some  measure  offset  the 
lack  of  an  agricultural  district.  In  the  northern  part 
there  are  vast  tracts  of  pine  and  fir  trees,  and  farther 
south  varieties  of  hardwood  trees  abound.  Streams 
descending  from  the  mountains  furnish  ample  water 
power,  and  the  manufacture  of  lumber  is  one  of  the 
leading    industries.      A    large    amount    of    lumber    is 


NORWAY 


87 


shipped  away  in  Norwegian  vessels  to  foreign  markets. 
The  countries  of  western  Europe  depend  largely  upon 
Norway  and  Sweden  for  their  lumber  supplies.  The 
number  of  mills  for  the  manufacture  of  paper  from 
wood  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  forests  also  yield  large 
quantities  of  turpentine  and  resin. 

Fis'hing  is  a  very  important  industry  of  Norway.     Cod- 
fish are  plentiful  in  the  cold  waters  near  the  northern 


Drying  Fish 

coast  of  Europe,  as  they  are  in  the  northern  waters  of 
the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The  best  fishing 
o-rounds  are  about  the  Lofoden  Islands,  which  thousands 

CD  ' 

of  Norwegian  fishermen  visit  every  spring. 

The  northern  portion  of  Norway  and  Sweden  is  the 
home  of  the  Lapps  and  is  known  as  Lapland.  These 
peculiar  people  are  very  short  and  have  high  cheek 
bones  and  flat  noses.  They  do  not  belong  to  the 
White  Race,  as  most  other  European  peoples  do,  but  to 
the   Yellow    Race,  like  many  of   the  peoples  of  Asia. 


88  EUROPE 

The  Lapps  who  live  at  a  distance  from  the  coast  support 
themselves  chiefly  by  their  herds  of  reindeer.  Their 
food  consists  of  reindeer  meat  and  reindeer  milk,  and 
their  clothing  of  reindeer  skins.  They  live  in  tents 
and  move  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  moss  upon 
which  their  reindeer  may  feed. 


Lapp  and  Reindeer 

In  a  country  so  far  north  as  Norway,  and  so  limited 
in  natural  advantages,  we  should  not  expect  the  cities 
to  be  large  or  numerous.  Christiania,  the  capital  and 
largest  city,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  a  long  fjord.  It 
contains  many  fine  residences  and  beautiful  parks. 
There  are  several  smaller  cities  and  towns  along  the 
western  coast.  Trondhjem  is  about  a  thousand  years 
old.  It  has  the  most  northerly  railway  station  in  the 
world  and  a  harbor  that  never  freezes. 

Hammerfest,  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  is  farther  north 
than  any  other  town  in  Europe.     In  winter,  in  American 


NORWAY 


89 


waters  tat  the  same  latitude,  we  should  find  solid  fields  of 
ice,  but  on  account  of  the  modifying  iniluence  of  the 
ocean  winds  vessels  can  enter  the  harbor  of  Hammerfest 
at  all  times  of  the  year.  It  is  a  surprise  to  many  travel- 
ers to  find  in  that  Arctic  region  a  town  where  people 
cultivate  gardens  and  have  newspapers  and  telephones. 

Sixty  miles  beyond  Hammerfest  is  the  North  Cape. 
Excursion  steamers  in  summer  often  proceed  as  far  as 


The  Midnight  Sun  at  North  Cape 

that  cape  that  their  passengers  may  reach  the  most 
northern  point  of  land  in  Europe  and  have  a  view  of 
the  sun  at  midnight. 

Norway  is  a  popular  country  for  summer  visitors. 
From  the  steamers  in  the  fjords  and  from  tlie  highways 
among  the  mountains  there  is  beautiful  scenery  on  all 
sides. 

1.  About  how  long  is  Norway? 

2.  On  which  side  of  the  Arctic  Circle  arc  tlio  T^ofodcn  Islands? 

3.  Why  are  the  rivers  of  Norway  very  short? 


90 


EUROPE 


4.  Can  you  give  reasons  why  only  a  small  part  of  the  water  power  of 
Norway  is  used  for  manufacturing? 

5.  Much  of  the  foreign  trade  of  Norway  is  carried  on  with  Great  Britain. 

Name  articles  that  Nor- 
wegian vessels  would  be 
likely  to  take  home  in 
exchange  for  lumber. 

6.  Give  reasons 
why  the  towns  and  vil- 
lages of  Norway  are 
mostly  near  the  coast. 

7.  Can  you  explain 
why  the  harbor  of  Chris- 
tiania  is  frozen  over  in 
winter,  while  that  of 
Hammerfest  is  not? 

8.  About  how  far 
is  it  in  a  direct  line 
from  Christiania  to 
Trondhjcm? 

9.  Bergen  is  an 
important  fishing  port. 
Where  is  it  situated? 

10.  Find  how  the 
hititude  of  Hammerfest 
compares  with  that  of 
the  most  northerly  point 
of  Alaska. 


Copyrisht  bj-  Keystone  \  i 

The  Principal  Street  in  Christiania 


11.    Why  is  Norway  called  the  "Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun"? 


15.    Sweden 

The  western  border  of  Sweden  is  mountainous,  like 
Norway.  This  is  because  it  contains  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  mountain  range  that  separates  the  two  countries. 
To  the  east  and  south  of  these  mountains  the  country 
is  covered  with  low  hills  and  dotted  with  numerous  lakes 
formed  by  the  Ice  Sheet.  In  the  central  part  of  the 
country  lakes  appear  in  almost  every  direction.  The 
southern  part  is  a  region  of  low  and  level  land. 


SWEDEN 


91 


The  rivers  of  Sweden  have  longer  courses  than  those 
in  Norway  and  'flow  through  more  gently  sloping  land. 
Some  of  them  are  therefore  navigahle  for  long  distances. 

Lumbering  is  a  leading  industry  in  Sweden  as  well 
as  in  Norway.  The  northern  half  of  the  country  is  well 
covered  with  timber  forests,  and  waterfalls  supply  power 
for  manufacturing.     Much  timber  is  now  converted  into 


Making  Matches  in  Sweden 

pulp  for  paper  and  much  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
matches.  The  amount  of  wood  required  for  a  single 
match  is  so  small  that  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how 
the  match  industiy  can  consume  a  great  amount  of 
timber.  But  almost  everybody  uses  matches.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  the  civilized  people  of  the  w^orld 
strike  on  the  average  three  million  matches  per  minute. 
It  requires  over  seven  hundred  billion  matches  a  year  to 
supply  the  United  States  alone.  There  are  many  match 
factories  in  the  United  States.  A  single  factory  on  our 
Pacific  coast  cuts  up  into  little  match  sticks  over  two 
hundred  thousand  feet  of  pine  lumber  every  day.     In 


92 


EUROPE 


Sweden  tliousands  of  women  and  children  are  engaged 
in  making  match  boxes  and  sticks. 

Vahiable  minerals  are  found  in  Sweden.  Besides 
copper  and  zinc,  its  mines  yield  the  best  kind  of  iron  ore, 
which  is  desirable  for  making  fine  steel.  Unfortunately 
there  are  no  coal  mines  of  any  account.  Some  ore  is 
smelted  with  charcoal  and  wood,  and  some  with  coal 


Making  Charcoal 

obtained  from  other  countries,  but  a  large  amount  of 
Swedish  ore  is  exported  to  countries  in  which  coal  is 
easily  obtained.  Among  these  countries  are  England, 
Germany,  France,  and  ]3elgium. 

The  production  of  charcoal  for  smelting  ore  and  other 
purposes  is  an  important  industry  in  Sweden.  Sticks 
of  wood  are  either  piled  up  and  covered  with  sods  or 
packed  in  large  ovens  such  as  are  used  for  preparing 
coke  from  coal.  A  slow  fire,  kept  burning  for  a  long 
time,  consumes  those  parts  of  the  wood  that  give  much 
smoke  and  little  heat.  The  charcoal  that  remains  when 
the  fire  is  extinguished  produces  a  great  amount  of  heat 


SWEDEN 


m 


and  is  sometimes  used  in  place  of  mineral  coal  or  coke, 
although  it  is  more  expensive. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation  of  the  level  lands 
of  southern  Sweden  and  is  of  considerable  importance 
among  the 
hills  and  val- 
leys farther 
north.  Al- 
though the  cli- 
mate is  cold  in 
wi  n  t  e  r,  the 
summers  are 
w  a  r  m,  and 
crops  mature 
very  rapidly. 
Large  quanti- 
ties of  beets 
for  sugar,  and 
wheat  and 
other  grains 
are    produced,  c„|,.vi,jii,i  i.y  t  iid.rwuu,!  a  i-ndonvood,  n.  y. 

Much     of    the  A  Swedish  Family  Harvesting 

land  is  excellent  for  pasturing,  and  the  country  pro- 
duces a  large  amount  of  dairy  goods  for  foreign  mar- 
kets. Because  of  their  interest  in  dairying  the  Swedes 
have  become  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  machines  and 
implements  suitable  for  dairy  work. 

The  development  of  agriculture  has  been  nuicli  liin- 
dered  by  the  fact  that  many  of  the  farms  are  very  small. 
The  law  of  Sweden  has  required  that  when  a  man  dies 
his  land  shall  be  equally  divided  among  his  children,  and 


94 


EUROPE 


this  has  resulted  in  the  division  of  the  land  into  a  great 
number  of  small  strips.  The  land  belonging  to  one 
farmer  may  consist  of  a  number  of  these  separate  lots. 

Stockholm,  the  capital  and  chief  city  of  Sweden,  is 
the  great  trading  center.  It  is  situated  upon  nine  islands, 
at  the  entrance  to  a  lake,  in  a  level  region  where  rivers, 


Stockholm 

lakes,  and  canals  afford  a  great  convenience  for  trans- 
portation. The  southern  part  of  Sweden,  many  centuries 
ago,  was  the  home  of  warriors  who  went  out  upon  the 
seas  in  their  fighting  ships.  These  Goths  had  a  fortress 
on  the  central  island  of  the  group  on  which  Stockholm 
is  located,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  the  city.  It  has 
many  open  squares  and  parks,  and  canals  and  broad 
sheets  of  water  extending  through  it  in  all  directions. 
So  many  Swedes  have  emigrated  to  America  that  there 
are  now  about  one  third  as  many  in  our  country  as  there 
are  remaining  in  Sweden.  But  Sweden  has  great  sources 
of  industry  and  wealth  in  its  timber  lands,  mines,  and 
farms.     Interest  in  home  industries  is  increasing,  and 


DEXMARK 


95 


fewer  people   th<an  formerly  are  departing  to  foreign 
shores. 


Picturesque  Swedish  Costumes 

1.  What  bodies  of  water  lie  between  Sweden  and  otlier  countries  of 
Europe? 

2.  What  is  the  name  of  the  range  of  mountains  that  forms  the  boun- 
dary between  Norway  and  Sweden? 

:}.    Why  is  the  rainfall  greater  in  Norway  than  in  Sweden? 

4.  Compare  tlie  area  of  Sweden  with  that  of  Norway. 

5.  How  far  is  it  from  the  northern  extremity  of  Sweden  to  its  southern 
extremity? 

6.  In  what  direction  is  Christiania  from  Stockholm? 

7.  Through  a  chain  of  lakes  and  canals  ships  can  pass  from  Stockholm 
to  Gothenburg.     Why  is  this  a  great  advantage? 

8.  Through  what  waters  would  a  vessel  be  likely  to  pass  in  carrying 
a  load  of  iron  ore  from  Stockholm  to  Liverpool? 

9.  Find   whether  the  city  of  Stockholm  is  farther  north  or  farther 
south  than  the  northern  point  of  Labrador. 


1 6.   Denmark 

The  kingdom  of  Denmark  once  included  the  present 
territory  of  Norway  and  Sweden  and  large  sections  of 
Germany  and  Russia.  Although  one  portion  of  its 
domain  after  another  has  been  severed  from  it  until  it 


96 


EUROPE 


has  become  one  of  the  smallest  countries  of  Europe, 
the  home  country  itself  has  never  been  subject  to  any 
foreign    power.      This   is    the    more    remarkable    since 

Germany  or 
any  other  Eu- 
ropean nation 
would  be  glad 
to  possess  it 
because,  in 
time  of  war, 
it  would  con- 
trol the  pas- 
sage of  ships 
from  the 
North  Sea  to 
the  Baltic. 

The  country 
now  consists 
of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the 

peninsula  sometimes  called  Jutland,  with  the  neigh- 
boring islands.  About  one  half  the  people  live  upon  the 
islands,  and  because  long  arms  of  the  sea  extend  into  the 
mainland  no  part  of  the  country  is  more  than  thirty-five 
miles  from  the  water.  Excepting  the  Netherlands,  it  is 
the  lowest  and  flattest  country  in  Europe. 

An  account  of  the  industries  of  this  small  country  is 
simple  and  easily  given.  It  is  so  flat  that  it  has  but 
little  water  power.  It  also  contains  no  coal  for  steam 
power,  and  hence  cannot  be  a  manufacturing  country. 
It  contains  no  mines  of  valuable  metals  and  but  little 


)d  &  I'ndprwood,  N.  Y 


Making  Butter  at  the  largest  Dairy  in  the  World, 
Haslev,  Denmark 


DENMARK 


07 


timber  land.  The  Danes  therefore  make  agriculture 
their  chief  occupation.  Danish  farmers  are  very  intel- 
ligent and  have  had  nmch  success  in  tilling  the  soil. 
They  export  every  year  to  Great  Britain  many  millions 
of  dollars  worth  of  dairy  products. 

Copenhagen,  the  capital  city,  is  upon  an  island  and 
has  the  only  harbor  in  Denmark  that  will  accommodate 
large  vessels.  The  name 
Copenhagen  means  Mer- 
chants' Haven.  Thou- 
sands of  vessels,  passing 
between  the  Baltic  Sea 
and  the  North  Sea,  go 
through  the  narrow  strait 
that  separates  Denmark 
from  the  coast  of  Sweden, 
and  nearly  all  of  them 
stop  at  Copenhagen. 
]\Iany  large  ships  with 
cargoes  from  distant  ports 
unload  their  wares  at 
Copenhagen  and  have 
them  forwarded  to  their 
various  destinations  in  smaller  Danish  steamers.  This 
method  of  distribution  has  given  the  city  a  reputation 
as  a  great  forwarding  port.  Copenhagen  is  also  a  great 
distributing  center  for  fish. 

Many  young  people  are  interested  in  Denmark  be- 
cause of  the  great  Danish  writer  of  children's  stories, 
Hans  Christian  Andersen,  a  statue  of  whom  has  been 
erected  in  Copenhagen. 


••-■■'S 

._^  ;/^^ 

^^^^^tK 

u^^ii^^ 

j^fflH 

Ifmmr^  ~'^-iSP-.-^^f/l^^^^ 

vSBMjifnr     '  ^ 

j^:.':5i^.  ^'"r"^^M| 

H^M 

Statue  of  Hans  Christian  Andersen, 
Copenhagen 


EUROPE 


The  islands  of  Iceland  and  Greenland  belong  to  Den- 
mark, and  very  properly,  since  these  lands  were  first 
discovered  by  Scandinavian  Vikings.  Iceland  is  not  a 
bitterly  cold  country,  as  its  name  suggests.     It  is  out  of 

the  line  of  the  cold 
current  from  the 
Arctic  regions  and 
is  surrounded 
by  the  warmer 
waters  of  the  At- 
lantic. The  cli- 
mate near  its 
coast  is  therefore 
temperate  and 
healthful.  The 
inhabitants  are 
descendants  of 
early  settlers  who 
came  from  Eu- 
rope, but  they 
have  had  so  little 
contact  with  the 
outer  world  that  their  customs  are  still  very  simple. 
They  obtain  their  livelihood  largely  by  raising  sheep. 
They  spin  yarn  from  wool  and  manufacture  cloth  with 
hand  looms  as  our  forefathers  did  a  hundred  years  ago. 
They  are  accustomed  to  travel  on  the  backs  of  ponies. 

Iceland  is  noted  for  its  extinct  volcanoes,  its  beds  of 
lava,  and  its  hot  springs  and  geysers. 

The  Faroe  Islands  also  belong  to  Denmark,  and  some 
small  islands  in  the  West  Indies. 


Danish  Cheese  at  Haslev 


GERMANY 


99 


1.  Compare  the  area  of  Denmark  with  that  of  Belgium. 

2.  Why  is  Denmark  sometimes  called  the  "Keeper  of  the  Baltic"? 

3.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Copenhagen  to  the  Faroe  Islands? 

4.  What  other  group  of  islands  lies  in  the  line  of  the  voyage  from 
Copenhagen  to  Iceland? 


The  Cathedral  at  Roskilde,  Denmark 

5.  About  how  many  tlegrees  of  longitude  is  Iceland  farther  west  than 
Denmark  ? 

6.  Reikiavik  is  the  capital  of  Iceland.    In  what  part  of  the  island  is  it? 

7.  About  how  much  farther  north  is  the  southern  coast  of  Icelantl 
than  the  southern  coast  of  Greenland? 

8.  Why  do  Danish  ships  make  voyages  to  Greenland  in  the  summer 
only,  while  they  go  to  Iceland  at  all  times  of  the  year? 


17.   Germany 

Germany  is  one  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe. 
Most  of  the  people  are  descendants  of  the  Teutonic,  or 
Germanic,  tribes  that  overcame  the  Romans  many  cen- 
turies ago.  Some  of  these  Teutonic  people  settled  in 
England  about  fifteen  hundred  years  ago,  and  most  of 
the  English  people  are  their  descendants.    Thus  the  Ger- 


100 


EUROPE 


mans,  the  English,  and  the  Americans  are  closely  related. 
The  same  characteristics  have  given  these  three  peoples 
leading  parts  in  the  progress  of  the  world. 

The  German  Empire  is  composed  of  twenty-six  states 
of  various  sizes.  All  these  were  once  independent  and 
were  frequently  engaged  in  wars  with  one  another. 
They  were  afterward  loosely  united  for  the  purpose  of 


The  Reichstag,  Berlin 

guarding  their  common  welfare,  somewhat  as  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  were  at  first  nnited.  Austria  was  then 
one  of  the  states  of  the  German  union,  but  later  with- 
drew and  established  an  independent  government. 

Since  the  German  states  were  surrounded  by  powerful 
countries  that  could  easily  overcome  any  one  of  them, 
it  became  necessary  for  them  to  unite  for  common  de- 
fense. In  1870  they  were  victorious  in  a  war  with  the 
French.  The  spirit  of  brotherhood  brought  about  by 
this  struggle  led  to  a  more  united  government. 


GERMANY 


101 


The  largest  and  most  powerful  German  state  is 
Prussia.  Three  others,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  Wurtem- 
berg,  are  monarchies  like  Prussia.  The  King  of  Prussia 
is  emperor  over  all  the  states  and  is  called  the  Kaiser. 
His  position  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  There  is  a  law-making  assembly 
composed  of  representatives  from  the  different  states, 


The  Imperial  Palace,  Berlin 

similar  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  The  gov- 
ernment is  thus  a  limited,  or  constitutional,  monarchy 
similar  to  that  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Germans  are  a  very  highly  educated  people. 
They  believe  in  thorough  education  in  the  public  schools. 
Every  German  child  is  required  to  attend  school,  and 
the  school  hours  are  longer  and  the  amount  of 
work  required  is  greater  than  in  American  schools.  In 
many  German  cities  are  noted  universities,  at  which 
the  highest  branches  of  learning  are  taught.  Many 
students  from  America  and  other  countries  attend 
these  universities  to  complete  their  education. 


102 


EUROPE 


Germany  has  a  very  powerful  army  and  navy.  It 
has  been  called  a  land  of  schools  and  soldiers.  The 
countries  of  Europe  are  so  near  one  another  and  so 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  their  neighbors  that  it  is  con- 
sidered necessary  to  maintain  large  armies  and  to  build 
strons  fortifications   on  the   frontiers.     The    Germans 


German  Military  Review 

also  spend  many  millions  of  dollars  in  building  warsliips 
to  defend  their  coasts  against  attacks  by  other  nations, 
and  to  protect  their  colonial  possessions  and  the  inter- 
ests of  their  citizens  in  distant  parts  of  the  world. 

Every  able-bodied  young  man  in  Germany  is  required 
to  spend  some  time  in  the  army,  unless  excused  for 
particular  reasons.  In  time  of  peace  the  German  army 
consists  of  about  half  a  million  men,  and  several  times 
that  number  are  ready  to  be  called  upon  in  time  of  war. 
The  necessity  of  maintaining  such  an  army  is  a  great 
loss  to  Germany,  as  it  is  to  any  nation.  The  welfare  of 
the  whole  people  is  greatly  hindered  when  such  a 
number  of  able  young  men  are  taken  from  positions  of 


GERMANY 


103 


usefulness  and  sent  to  live  in  soldiens'  barracks.  If  the 
time  should  come  when  war  would  be  impossible  and 
the  nations  of  the  world  could  disband  their  armies, 
there  would  be  cause  for  rejoicing  all  over  the  world. 


A  Village  on  the  Rhine 

Germany  has  a  dense  population.  It  is  not  so  large 
as  our  state  of  Texas,  but  it  contains  over  sixty  million 
people.  On  account  of  their  crowded  condition  at 
home  many  Germans  are  seeking  larger  opportunities 
in  other  parts  of  the  world.  They  generally  become 
desirable  and  successful  citizens  in  new  countries,  for 
they  are  thoroughly  educated  and  trained.  There  are 
many  Germans  in  the  United  States  and  many  in 
Brazil,  Chile,  and  other  countries  of  South  America. 

The  German  government  has  endeavored  to  obtain 
colonial  possessions  to  which  its  people  might  emigrate. 


104 


EUROPE 


Ruins  of  Castle  Ehrenfels 


It  owns  territory  in  Africa  and  Asia,  and  many  islands 
in  the  Pacific.      The  most  important    of  these  colonies 

is      German 

East  Africa. 

The  south- 
ern part  of 
Germany  is 
very  moun- 
tainous. The 
northern  part 
is  called  the 
lowlands. 
Some  portions 
of  it  are  flat, 
while  others 
consist  of  roll- 
ing hills.  Several  rivers  flow  down  from  the  highlands 
across  the  lowlands  to  the  sea. 

The  Rhine  is  the  great  river  of  Germany.  It  is,  in 
fact,  the  great  central  river  of  western  Europe.  It  is 
seven  hundred  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for  more 
than  six  hundred  miles.  It  is  the  pride  of  the  German 
people.  It  has  worn  a  deep  valley  among  the  hills  and 
across  the  plains,  and  the  scenery  along  its  banks  is  of 
exceptional  beauty.  Here  and  there  are  interesting  ruins 
of  ancient  castles  with  massive  walls  and  narrow  loop- 
holes for  windows.  Many  centuries  ago,  in  that  period 
of  history  known  as  the  Middle  Ages,  these  castles  were 
occupied  by  nobles,  who  were  frequently  at  war  with 
one  another.  They  lived  in  castles  with  their  soldiers 
and  forced  the  poor  people  of  the  country  to  support 


GERIMANY 


105 


them.  In  one  of  these  great  castles,  protected  by  im- 
mense gates,  a  very  few  men  conld  defend  themselves 
against  a  large  army. 

Many  German  stories  and  poems  relate  to  particnlar 
localities  along  the  Rhine.  The  famous  rock  of  the 
Lorelei  is  a  high  cliff  standing  near  dangerous  rapids. 


Rock  of  the  Lorelei 

It  has  a  remarkable  echo,  that  gave  rise  to  the  old  legend 
of  a  maiden  called  the  Lorelei,  who  sits  upon  the  rock 
combing  her  hair  and  singing  so  sweetly  that  boatmen 
forget  the  danger  and  are  enticed  into  the  rapids  to 
their  destruction. 

Along  the  river  are  very  strong  fortifications  to  pre- 
vent an  enemy  from  getting  control  of  it  in  time  of  war. 
The  strongest  of  these  is  called  Ehrenbreitstein,  which 
means  Broad  Stone  of  Honor.  If  has  been  used  as  a 
stronghold  for  more  than  a  century,  and  is  often  called 
the  "  German  Gil)raltar."  It  contains  hundreds  of  big 
guns  and  provisions  enough  to  support  an  army  of  several 


106 


EUROPE 


thousand  men  for  ten  or  fifteen  years.  The  German 
National  Monument  on  a  high  hill  near  the  river  is  the 
greatest  monument  of  its  kind  in  Europe.  It  commem- 
orates the  victories  of  the  Germans  in  their  war  with 
France. 


Ehrenbreitstein 

1.  Name  the  countries  that  border  upon  Ciermany. 

2.  Wliy  has  the  western  part  of  Germany  a  milder  climate  tha,n  the 
eastern  part? 

3.  Find  how  great  the  average  population  of  Germany  is  per  square 
mile. 

4.  Find  how  the  density  of  the  population  compares  with  that  of 
Belgium. 

5.  In  what  general  directions  and  into  what  bodies  of  water  do  most 
of  the  rivers  of  Germany  flow? 

G.  What  river  rises  in  southern  Germany  and  flows  east  into  the  Black 
Sea? 

7.  The  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  extends  from  Kiel,  on  the  Baltic  Sea, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  River.  Of  what  advantage  do  you  think  it  is 
for  trade? 

8.  Of  what  advantage  would  this  canal  be  in  time  of  war? 

9.  The  large  rivers  of  France,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands  have 
helped  the  progress  of  Germany.     Can  you  explain  this? 

10.  Germany  owns  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  the  Ladrone  Islands, 
except  Guam,  besides  other  islands  in  the  Pacific.  In  what  part  of  the 
Pacific  are  these  two  groups? 


GERMANY 


107 


i8.    German  Industries  and  Cities 
The  ability  of  Gennany  to  support   its  large   popu- 
lation is  especially  due  to  the  fact  that  it  possesses  a 
variety  of   natural   advantages,   by   which    the   people 
have  profited  with  intelligence  and  skill. 

There  is  but 
little  waste 
land  in  the 
country.  The 
soil  every- 
where is  used 
for  agricul- 
ture, pastur- 
ing, or  timber 


forests.  It  is 
not  generally 
very  fertile, 
but  so  great 
skill  is  applied 
in  cultivation 
that  large 
crops  are  pro- 
duced. On  the 
hillsides  bor- 
dering the  Rhine  land  is  so  desirable  that  many  cemented 
walls  have  been  constructed,  one  above  another,  to  hold 
the  soil  and  prevent  it  from  being  washed  away.  Most 
of  these  terraced  slopes  are  covered  with  vineyards. 

The  process  of  obtaining  sugar  from  beets  was  first 
discovered  in  Germany,  and  beet  sugar  is  still  the  lar- 


Copyriglit  by  Kcystmic  V 

Terraced  Vineyard  on  the  Rhine 


108 


EUROPE 


gest  agricultural  crop.  After  the  demand  at  home  has 
been  supplied  there  is  a  large  amount  remaining  to  be 
exported.  Fields  of  grain  and  grass  and  herds  of  thriv- 
ing cattle  cover  the  plains  of  northern  Germany.  The 
soil  and  climate  are  not  very  well  adapted  to  wheat,  but 


Peasant  Girl  Farm  Hands  on  way  to  Work 


crops  of  rye,  oats,  and  barley  take  its  place.  The  com- 
mon bread  of  the  peasants  is  made  from  rye.  There  is 
not  sufficient  land,  however,  to  produce  grain  enough 
for  the  entire  population.  Much  is  imported  from 
Russia  and  the  United  States. 

Most  German  farmers  live  in  villages  and  go  out  every 
day  to  work  upon  their  small  farms.  The  peasant 
women  do  much  of  the  farm  work. 

Germany  ranks  next  after  Great  Britain  among  the 
manufacturing  countries  of  Europe.  The  rivers  afford 
considerable  water  power,  and  coal  and  iron  are  found 
conveniently  near  together.  The  mines  are  widely 
scattered  over  the  country  and  give  opportunities  for 
manufacturing  industries  in  many  places. 


GERMANY 


109 


Much  manufacturing  is  done  by  the  people  in  their 
homes.  Many  families  support  themselves  by  knitting, 
making  clothing,  or  carving  articles  from  wood.  More 
children's  toys  are  manufactured  by  families  in  the  Black 
Forest  region 
of  southern 
Germany  than 
in  any  other 
country.  Arti- 
cles are  every- 
where regard- 
ed as  excellent 
in  quality  if  it 
is  known  that 
they  were 
"made  in  Ger- 
many." 

Success  in 
manufacturing 
goods  and  in 
buying    and 

selling  them  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  there  are 
many  technical  and  commercial  schools  in  which  the 
young  people  are  trained. 

More  coal  and  iron  are  produced  in  Germany  than  in 
any  other  countries  of  the  world  except  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain.  There  are  about  a  thousand 
iron  mines  in  the  country.  Other  mines  yield  silver, 
copper,  lead,  tin,  and  zinc.  In  one  section  there  are 
great  beds  of  potash  salts.  Large  quantities  of  these 
salts  are  imported  into  the  United  States  for  fertilizer. 


Salt  Works  at  Kreuznach 


no 


EUROPE 


German  forests  are  not  very  extensive,  bi\t  they  are 
under  the  control  of  the  government.  They  are  care- 
fully guarded  against  fire,  and  no  one  is  permitted  to 
cut  down  a  tree  without  planting  a  new  one  to  take  its 
place.     Under  such  treatment   the  timber   lands  yield 


A  Street  in  Dresden 

a  far  greater  supply  than  they  would  if  they  were 
neglected,  as  much  of  the  timber  land  of  the  United 
States  has  been.  Throughout  the  great  Black  For- 
est region  trees  have  been  carefully  planted  almost 
everywhere. 

Since  Germany  has  a  central  location  among  the 
countries  of  western  Europe  and  has  a  seacoast  and 
good  harbors,  it  has  great  advantages  for  commerce 
both  with  neighboring  countries  and  with  distant  coun- 
tries  across   tlie  seas.     The   people  have  great  talent 


GERMANY 


111 


for  trade    and  are  striving  to  extend  their  commerce 
throughout  the  world. 

In  a  country  with  such  a  dense  population  and  with 
such  opportunities  for  manufacturing  there  is  naturally 
a  large  number  of  important  cities.  Since  the  states 
have  been  united  under  a  strong  central  government, 


Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin 

there  has  been  a  rapid  growth  in  many  industries,  and 
some  of  the  cities  have  greatly  increased  in  size. 

Berlin,  which  is  the  capital  city  of  Prussia  and  the 
capital  and  largest  city  of  the  empire,  has  grown  about 
as  rapidly  as  New  York  or  Chicago.  It  is  situated  on 
a  small  river,  but  there  are  canals  connecting  it  with 
other  rivers.  Several  of  the  leading  railroads  of  Europe 
pass  through  Berlin  and  make  it  a  great  railroad  center. 
The  German  people  have  taken  great  pains  to  make 
their  capital  attractive.  A  street  in  Berlin  named 
Unter  den  Linden  is  one  of  the  famous  streets  of  the 
world.  It  has  seven  separate  roadways,  each  of  which 
has  a  special  use. 


112 


EUROPE 


Hamburg  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  northern 
Europe.  Among  German  cities  it  is  next  to  Berlin  in 
size  and  is  the  largest  seaport  of  the  continent.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbor  near  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  River, 
and    a  large  part  of  the  foreign  trade  of  the  country 


Cologne  Cathedral 

passes  over  its  wharves.  America  ships  to  Hamburg 
much  cotton  and  a  great  amount  of  food  supplies. 

Bremen,  on  the  river  Weser,  not  far  from  Hamburg, 
is  an  important  port,  though  it  is  not  a  very  large  city. 
German  immigrants  to  America  usually  sail  from  the 
port  of  Bremen. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  is  one 
of  the  finest  of  German  cities.  It  contains  many  noted 
museums  and  art  galleries.  Among  the  wonderful 
paintmgs  to  be  seen  there  is  the  Sistine  Madonna  by 
Raphael. 


GERMANY 


113 


Leipzig  is  situated  at  the  junction  of  several  rivers 
and  is  a  great  manufacturing  and  commercial  city.  It 
has  a  special  reputation  as  a  fur  and  leather  market  and 
is  the  greatest  book-publishing  city  in  the  world. 


t_^  ^ 


A  View  in  Nuremberg 

At  Cologne  there  is  a  celebrated  cathedral,  which  was 
begun  in  the  year  1248  and  was  not  finished  until  1880. 
Its  spires  reach  to  a  height  of  over  five  hundred  feet. 

The  greatest  iron  and  steel  works  of  Germany  are  at 
Essen.  The  famous  Krupp  gun  works  in  that  city 
employ  over  40,000  men. 

1.  The  Black  Forest  extends  south  from  Baden-Baden  to  the  boun- 
darj'  of  Switzerland.     About  how  long  is  it?  • 

2.  The  great  potash  mines  are  near  Magdeburg.     On  what  ri\er  is 
that  city? 

.3.   Stettin  can  be  reached  by  ships  from  the  Baltic  Sea.     On  what 
river  is  it? 


114  EUROPE 

4.  Kiel  is  the  cliief  naval  station  of  Germany.     In  wiiat  direction  is 
it  from  Hamburg? 

5.  On  the  cathedral  at  Strassburg  there  is  a  wonderful  clock.     In 
what  part  of  Germany  is  Strassburg? 

6.  Munich,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  is  an  important  railway  center. 
Where  is  it  situated? 

7.  Stuttgart,  the  capital  of  Wurtemberg,  is  a  music  center.     In  what 
direction  is  it  from  Strassburg? 

8.  Chemnitz  has  been  called  the  "Manchester  of  Germany,"  because 
it  is  a  great  manufacturing  center.     How  far  is  it  from  Dresden? 

9.  Breslau  is  the  center  of  a  great  iron-manufacturing  region.     On 
what  river  is  it? 

10.  Frankfort-on-the-Main  is  one  of  Germany's  most  ancient  cities. 
Into  what  river  does  the  Main  River  flow? 

11.  Nuremberg  is  another  ancient  city.     In  what  direction  is  it  from 
Munich? 

12.  Sketch  a  map  of  Germany,  showing  the  principal  rivers  and  cities. 


19.  Switzerland 

Switzerland  is  a  very  small  country.  It  is  not  quite 
twice  as  large  as  the  state  of  Massachusetts.  Much  of 
it  consists  of  high  mountains  with  streams  and  lakes 
among  them.  The  interior,  between  the  Alps  in  the 
southern  part  and  the  Jura  Mountains  on  the  north 
and  west,  is  a  plateau  covered  with  hills  and  lakes. 

The  westerly  winds  passing  over  the  mountains  bring 
an  abundance  of  rain  and  snow,  and  in  the  high  altitudes 
accumulations  of  snow  produce  glaciers.  These  descend 
along  the  sloping  valleys  until  they  melt  and  give  rise 
to  numerous  brooks  and  rivers. 

The  Swiss  people  have  had  an  exceptional  history. 
With  so  small  a  country  in  the  midst  of  the  powerful  Euro- 
pean nations,  it  is  remarkable  that  they  have  been  able 
to  maintain  their  independence.  The  fact  that  they  do 
not  all  speak  the  same  language  renders  this  the  more 


SWITZERLAND 


115 


surprising.  Although  a  large  proportion  speak  German, 
many  people  in  the  western  part  speak  French  and  many 
in  the  southern  part  speak  the  language  of  their  neigh- 


Among  the  Alps 

bors  in  Italy.  Differences  in  language  among  people 
tend  to  separation,  but  a  common  fondness  for  their 
native  country  has  kept  the  Swiss  united.  It  is  believed 
that  the  scenery  of  a  beautiful  mountainous  country 
like  Switzerland  causes  the  people  to  feel  a  devotion  to 
their  native  land. 


116 


EUROPE 


At  all  events  the  Swiss  have  always  been  very  patri- 
otic and  have  fought  hard  to  defend  their  country. 
Their  liistory  tells  of  long  struggles  against  the  Austrians, 

who  tried  to  overcome 
them,  and  of  the  brave 
deeds  of  William  Tell 
and  other  heroes,  who 
finally  drove  out  the  Aus- 
trian tyrants.  In  a  moun- 
tainous region  small 
bands  of  brave  men  are 
sometimes  able  to  resist 
large  armies.  Although 
at  present  other  nations 
might  be  able  to  conquer 
the  Swiss,  they  have  no 
intention  of  doing  so.  By 
agreement  among  the 
great  powers,  Switzer- 
land, like  Belgium,  is 
neutral  territory  in  which  no  fighting  is  to  be  permitted. 
Switzerland  is  the  oldest  republic  in  the  world.  It  is 
divided  into  twenty-two  districts,  called  cantons,  united 
in  a  central  government  similar  to  ours.  In  some  of 
the  cantons  the  citizens  still  meet  in  the  open  air  and 
there  choose  their  officers  and  make  their  laws. 

The  wonderful  scenery  and  the  cool  climate  of  this 
small  country  make  it  a  favorite  resort  for  multitudes 
of  summer  travelers.  It  is  estimated  that  over  half  a 
million  people  visit  Switzerland  every  summer.  Moun- 
tain scenery  is  to  be  found  there  in  the  greatest  variety. 


statue  of  Tell  at  Altorf 


swrrzp:RLAND  117 

The  louver  luoiintain  slopes  are  covered  with  forests, 
but  above  these  in  the  region  of  the  Alpine  meadows 
there  is  in  summer  a  rich  display  of  wild  flowers  of 
many  colors.  Among  them  are  the  Alpine  rose,  the 
azalea,  and  the  rhododendron.     Higher  still  is  the  region 


Climbing  the  Alps 

of  perpetual  snow,  where  those  fond  of  climbing  may 
brave  the  treacherous  glaciers  and  dangerous  peaks. 

For  the  accommodation  of  travelers  much  money  has 
been  expended  to  construct  fine  roads  that  lead  up  the 
mountain  slopes  and  around  steep  precipices.  Cog  rail- 
ways have  been  laid  to  the  tops  of  some  of  the  moun- 
tains, but  these  are  too  steep  for  the  general  purposes  of 
travel  and  transportation  over  the  Alps,  and  in  recent 
years  a  number  of  remarkable  tunnels  have  been  made 


118 


EUROPE 


under  the  lowest  parts  of  the  valleys.  The  mountain 
passes  above  these  tunnels  have  been  used  in  past  cen- 
turies as  the  highways  for  passing  from  Switzerland  into 

Italy.  In  an- 
cient times  the 
great  generals 
Hannibal  and 
Caesar  led  arm- 
ies through 
them.  A  little 
more  than  a 
century  ago 
Napoleon 
Bonaparte  led 
his  army  of  a 
hundred  thou- 
sand men  over 
the  Alps  into 
Italy.  The  tun- 
nel under  the 
St.  Gotthard 
Pass    is    nine 

St.  Gotthard  Pass  and  Tunnel  ^^-^^  O^e  fourth 

miles  long,  and  that  under  the  Simplon  Pass  reaches 
twelve  and  one  half  miles  through  the  solid  rock  of 
the  mountains.  Two  other  long  tunnels  through  the 
same  system  of  mountains  are  the  Mt.  Cenis  tunnel  in 
France  and  the  Arlberg  tunnel  in  Austria. 

Such  a  large  part  of  Switzerland  is  occupied  by  the 
mountains  that  there  is  but  little  land  suitable  for  agri- 
culture.    In  the  valleys  of  the  interior  plateau  grain, 


SWITZERLAND 


119 


fruit,  and  silkworms  are  produced.  Every  spot  of  suit- 
able land,  wherever  it  can  be  found,  is  used  for  some 
crop.  On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  hills  and  mountains, 
where  the  rays  of  the  sun 
are  warmest,  there  are 
many  vineyards  and  or- 
chards. Although  only 
about  one  sixth  of  the 
land  can  be  tilled,  there 
is  a  much  larger  amount 
of  pasture  land,  and  the 
Swiss  have  a  wide  repu- 
tation for  the  manufac- 
ture of  excellent  cheese. 
In  the  spring  thousands 
of  cows  are  driven  up  to 
the  mountain  pastures, 
wdiere  they  remain  in 
the    summer.       Herders 

,  -  Swiss  Sheep 

and    many   women    and 

children  care  for  the  cows  and  manufacture  the  cheese. 
As  the  snow  melts,  the  cows  are  driven  farther  and 
farther  up  the  mountains.  Many  sheep  and  goats  also 
are  pastured  in  the  highlands. 

There  is  no  coal  in  Switzerland,  and  but  a  small 
amount  of  other  minerals.  The  mountain  streams 
afford  considerable  water  power  for  manufacturing,  and 
this  is  often  converted  into  electric  power  and  thus 
transferred  to  convenient  points.  Much  manufacturing 
is  also  done  by  hand  in  the  homes  of  the  i)eople. 

The  amount  of  agricultural  crops  and  minerals  is  so 


120 


EUROPE 


small  that  most  of  the  materials  to  be  manufactured 
must  be  obtained  from  other  countries.  The  difficulty 
and  expense  of  transporting  goods  across  the  mountains 
has  been  a  serious  hindrance.  The  Swiss  people,  how- 
ever, have  gained  great  skill  in  making   articles  that 


Making  Swiss  Watches 

require  little  material  but  a  great  amount  of  careful 
work.  Among  these  are  watches,  clocks,  musical  in- 
struments, embroidery,  leather  goods,  and  wood  carv- 
ings. The  expense  of  transporting  such  high-priced 
goods  or  the  materials  for  them  is  but  little  in 
comparison  with  their  cost. 

Although  in  summer  many  of  the  people  are  engaged 
in  the  hotels  or  with  their  herds  among  the  mountains, 
the  permanent  homes  of  most  of  them  are  on  the  lower 
hilly  plain  between  the  mountain  ranges,  and  there  the 
chief  cities  and  towns  are  located. 

The  largest  city  is  Zurich.  It  is  a  railroad  center 
and  produces  a  large  amount  of  machinery,  and  cotton 
and  silk  goods. 


SWITZERLAND 


121 


Geneva  is  situated  on  the  beautiful  Lake  Geneva  and 
is  a  favorite  stopping  place  for  summer  visitors.  It  is 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  watches  and  clocks.  Be- 
fore American  watches  became  so  reliable  and  so  cheap 
Geneva  sent  to  the  United  States  in  one  year  three 
million  dollars  worth  of  watches. 


Geneva  and  Mt.  Blanc 


1.  Upon  what  countries  does  Switzerland  border? 

2.  Is  Switzerland  larger,  or  smaller,  than  Belgium? 

3.  Name  the  rivers  of  Europe  that  rise  among  the  Alps. 

4.  Mt.  Blanc,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Alps,  is  15,781  feet  high.  It 
is  really  in  France,  but  its  slope  extends  into  Switzerland.  How  many 
miles  high  is  it? 

5.  How  does  the  snow  upon  the  mountains  benefit  the  farming  lands 
that  lie  below? 

6.  Explain  how  water  power  is  converted  into  electric  power. 

7.  How  have  the  tunnels  through  the  Alps  increased  tlic  advantages 
of  Switzerland  for  manufacturing? 

8.  How  does  the  fact  that  Basel  is  near  France  and  Germany  give 
it  an  advantage  for  manufacturing? 

9.  Can  you  give  the  reason  why  fewer  watches  are  imported  into 
the  United  States  now  than  formerly? 

10.  Bern  is  the  capital  of  Switzerland.  In  what  part  of  the  country 
is  it? 


122 


EUROPE 


Review 

1.  Give  a  brief  history  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark. 

2.  Tell  about  the  location  and  climate  of  Norway. 

3.  Describe  the  physical  features  of  Norway. 

4.  Of  what  advantage  have  the  fjords  been  to  the  country? 

5.  Tell  about  the  Northmen. 

6.  Why  have  many  Norwegian  farmers  emigrated  to  America? 

7.  Tell  about  the  lumber  industry  of  the  country. 

8.  Tell  about  the  fishing  industry. 

9.  Explain  the  habits  of  the  Lapps. 

10.  Describe  the  capital 
city  of  Norway. 

11.  For  what  is  Ham- 
merfest  remarkable? 

12.  Why  is  Norway  at- 
tractive to  summer  visitors  ? 

13.  Describe  the  physi- 
cal features  of  Sweden. 

14.  In  what  part  of 
Sweden  is  lumbering  the 
chief   industry? 

15.  Tell  about  the  match 
industry. 

16.  Why  is  much  iron 
ore  exported  from  Sweden? 

17.  Describe  the  process 
of  preparing  charcoal. 

18.  In  what  part  of  the 
country  is  agriculture  suc- 
cessful? 

19.  What  condition  in 
Sweden  has  hindered  agri- 
cultural prosperity? 

20.  Describe  the  city  of  Stockholm. 

21.  Why  are  fewer  people  emigrating  from  Sweden  now  than  formerly? 

22.  How  much  territory  once  belonged  to  Denmark? 

23.  Describe  the  land  surface  of  Denmark. 

24.  Describe  the  chief  industries  of  the  people. 

25.  Explain  the  importance  of  Copenhagen  as  a  seaport. 

26.  Tell  about  the  climate  of  Iceland. 

27.  Tell  about  the  habits  and  industries  of  the  people  of  Iceland. 

28.  For  what  natural  objects  of  interest  is  Iceland  noted? 


Peasant  Family  in  Saxony 


REVIEW 


123 


29.  How   arc    the   German    people    related    to    the    Kiifilisli    and    the 
Americans? 

30.  Give  an  account  of  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire. 

31.  Explain  the  German  form  of  government. 

32.  Tell  about  education  in  Germany. 

33.  Tell  about  the  German  army  and  navy. 

34.  Tell  about  the  population  of  Germany. 

35.  Where  are  most  of  Germany's  colonial  possessions? 

36.  Describe  the  land  surface  of  the  country. 

37.  Describe  the  Rhine  River. 
3S.   Tell  about  the  Lorelei. 

39.  Describe  a  great  fortification  on  the  Rhine. 

40.  Tell  about  the  German  National  Monument. 

41.  Why  can  Germany  support  a  large  population? 

42.  Tell  about  the  agricultural  land. 

43.  What  are  some  of  the  leading  crops? 
4-t.    Explain  the  industry  of  manufacturing 

in  Germany. 

45.  How  much  coal  and  iron  is  mined  in 
Germany? 

4G.  What  other  minerals  are  found  in  the 
country  ? 


47. 
48. 
49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
tion? 
53. 
54. 


Describe  the  forests  of  Germany. 

Describe  the  city  of  Berlin. 

Tell  about  the  port  of  Hamburg. 

Tell  about  the  port  of  Bremen. 

For  what  is  Dresden  noted  ? 

For  what  has  Leipzig  a  special  reputa- 


Tell  about  the  cathedral  at  Cologne. 
Describe     the      physical      features      of 
Switzerland. 

55.  Tell  about  the  glaciers. 

56.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  Swiss  people. 

57.  Tell  about  the  government  of  Switzerland 

58.  Describe  the  scenery  of  Switzerland. 

59.  Describe  the  roads  among  the  mountains. 

60.  Tell  about  the  passes  and  tunnels  of  the  Alps 

61.  Tell  about  manufacturing  in  Switzerland. 

62.  Tell  about  the  Swiss  pastures. 

63.  Tell  about  Swiss  manufactures. 

64.  Describe  the  city  of  Zurich. 

65.  For  what  is  Geneva  noted? 


Swiss  Lace  Maker 


124 


EUROPE 


20.    Italy 

Italy  is  a  country  of  great  interest  to  us  because  it 
was  the  home  country  of  the  ancient  Romans.  It  forms 
a  peninsula  projecting  into  the  middle  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  was  a  natural  center  for  the  Roman  Em- 
pire and  the  center  of  the. civilized  world  of  that  time. 


Beautiful  Lake  Como  in  Northern  Italy 

The  present  Italians  are  the  descendants  of  various 
peoples,  including  the  original  Romans  and  the  German 
tribes  that  came  down  from  the  north  and  conquered 
the  Roman  Empire. 

After  the  fall  of  Rome,  Italy  was  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  small  coimtries.  These  were  often  at  war  with 
one  another  and  with  foreign  countries.  In  the  year 
1860  some  of  them  united,  and  in  1870  the  present 
kingdom  was  established,  including  the  whole  of  Italy, 
with  Rome  as  its  capital.     Since    that  time  the  pros- 


1TAI>Y 


125 


perity  of  the  country  lias  increased,  and  Italy  is  now 
reckoned  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

Italy  is  separated  from  Switzerland  and  France  on 
the  north  and  northwest  by  the  lofty  Alps.  The 
Apennines  extend  through  nearly  the  entire  length 
of  the  country.      The  level  lowlands  are  mostly  along 


Farmhouse  in  Northern  Italy 

the  coast  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea,  or  in  the 
river  valleys.  The  largest  extent  of  lowland  is  in  the 
north,  in  the  valley  of  the  Po  River  between  the  Alps 
and  the  Apennines.  In  this  valley  the  land  has  been 
formed  in  the  same  manner  as  that  on  the  plains  of 
South  America  and  in  portions  of  our  Mississippi  Valley. 
Long  ago  that  part  of  Italy  was  under  the  sea.  The 
ocean  bottom  was  gradually  covered  with  soil  and  after- 
ward rose  above  the  surface  and  became  fertile  land. 

A  large  quantity  of  waste  from  tlie  mountains  is  still 
washed  into  the  river  Po  and  is  either  carried  to  its 
mouth  to  extend  the  delta  into  the  sea  or  is  de- 
posited along  its  bed.     This  deposit  has  slowly  raised 


12G 


EUROPE 


the  bed  of  the  river,  so  that  parts  of  it  are  now  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  land  across  which  it  flows,  and 
dikes  have  been  constructed  to  prevent  an  overflow. 

The  climate  of  Italy  is  mild  and  free  from  extremes. 
The  high  mountains  on  the  north  are  a  protection  from 
cold  north  winds,  and  the  winds  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  tend  to  keep  the  temperature  uniform. 

Since  the  moun- 
tains extend  along 
the  interior,  they 
do  not  render  the 
climate  drier,  as  in 
Spain.  There  is 
more  rain  in  Italy 
in  winter  than  in 
summer,    for    the 

same  reason  as  in 
Farming  in  Italy  ^^^^   g^^^g   of   Q.^^^_ 

fornia,  that  is,  because  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  which 
bring  most  of  the  rain,  moves  north  in  the  summer 
season.  There  is  less  rain  in  the  southern  part  than 
in  the  northern  part,  because  south  of  the  belt  of  west- 
erly winds  is  the  belt  of  horse  latitudes  in  which  the 
air  that  rises  in  the  vicinity  of  the  equator  and  moves 
toward  the  north  settles  down  again  toward  the  earth 
and,  becoming  warmer  rather  than  cooler,  generally 
yields  no  rain. 

The  warm  and  sunny  climate  of  Italy  is  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  crops,  and  agriculture  is  the  leading 
industry.  In  some  sections  there  is  suflicient  rain,  but 
in    others    irrigation    is    commonly   practiced.      Water 


ITALY  127 

descending  in  many  streams  from  the  mountains  is 
easily  conducted  over  the  land.  Large  quantities  are 
stored  in  lakes  and  reservoirs  for  use  when  the  dry  sea- 
son comes.  By  this  means  several  crops  a  year  are 
often  produced  upon  the  same  land. 


Grinding  Olives  to  make  Oil 

Agriculture  is  most  flourishing  in  the  valley  of  the 
Po  River.  The  mulberry  tree  also  thrives  there,  and 
northern  Italy  produces  more  raw  silk  than  any  other 
region  in  Europe.  A  large  part  of  this  silk  is  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States. 

Olive  oil,  which  is  produced  in  nearly  all  countries 
about  the  Mediterranean,  is  a  very  important  product  of 
Italy.  Late  in  the  autumn,  when  the  olives  become 
ripe  and  purple,  they  are  gathered  and  ground  in  stone 
mills.  The  pulp  is  then  placed  under  great  pressure  in 
wooden  presses.  The  best  oil  is  that  which  flows  away 
first,  before  the  pressure  becomes  very  great.  Italians 
are  accustomed  to  eat  olive  oil  with  bread,  instead  of 
butter,  but  the  greater  part  is  sent  to  other  countries. 


128 


EUROPE 


Most  of  the  pickled  olives,  such  as  are  common  in  our 
markets,  are  picked  before  they  have  ripened  and  hence 
have  a  green  color. 

Macaroni  is  made  in  Italy  from  a  special  variety  of 
wheat,  containing  a  large  amount  of  gluten.  The  long 
strips    are    made   by    pressing    paste  through  holes  in 

cylinders. 
They  are  then 
placed  upon 
racks  to  dry. 
A  1 1  e  m  p  t  s 
have  been 
made  to  intro- 
duce the  pro- 
duction of  ma- 
caroni wheat 
into  the  Uni- 
ted States,  but 
most  of  our 
macaroni    is 

Drying  Macaroni  g^ijj  imported. 

Vineyards  are  to  be  seen  in  all  parts  of  Italy  and 
more  wine  is  produced  there  than  in  any  other  country 
except  France. 

Since  the  Italians  have  no  coal,  they  depend  upon  water 
power  and  electric  power  for  manufacturing.  There  are 
some  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  silk,  wool,  and 
cotton,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  raw  products  of 
the  country  is  exported  to  Switzerland,  France,  the 
United  States,  and  other  manufacturing  countries.  The 
people  are  very  artistic.     They  are  noted  for  the  fine 


ITALY 


129 


statuary,  wood  carvings,  earthenware,  and  glass  work 
that  they  produce. 

A  large  amount  of  sul[)hur  is  obtained  from  the  vicin- 
ity of  Mt.  Etna,  in  Sicily.  Much  of  the  sulphur  used  in 
the  United  States  comes  from  that  source. 


Italian  Peasants  in  Sicily 

Italian  marble  has  had  a  high  reputation  for  many 
centuries.  The  Romans  made  use  of  it  for  their  splen- 
did buildings  and  statues,  and  at  the  present  time  it  is 
in  demand  throughout  the  world  on  account  of  its  great 
beauty. 

An  impleasant  thought  in  connection  with  this  sunny 
country  is  the  fact  that  most  of  the  people  are  very 
poor.  The  population  is  dense,  and  there  does  not  seem 
to  be  room  enough  for  so  many  to  obtain  a  comfortable 
living.  Besides  this  the  people  are  taxed  heavily  for  the 
support  of  the  government.  Conditions  are  the  worst  in 
southern  Italy,  and  thousands  from  that  region  are  striv- 


130 


EUROPE 


ing  to  overcome  their  poverty  by  emigrating.  Many 
come  to  America  and  many  go  to  Argentina.  A  large 
number  of  Italians  are  now  settling  in  the  countries  of 
northern  Africa. 


The  Roman  Forum  2000  Years  Ago 


1.  What  countries  border  on  Italy? 

2.  Name  the  bodies  of  water  around  Italy. 

3.  What  two  bodies  of  water  are  connected  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto? 

4.  Where  is  the  Strait  of  Messina? 

5.  Locate  the  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  that  belong  to  Italy. 

6.  The  island  of  Malta  belongs  to  Great  Britain  and  is  strongly  forti- 
fied.    Where  is  it? 

7.  About  how  long  is  the  Italian  peninsula? 

8.  Why  is  Italy  well  situated  for  carrying  on  commerce? 

9.  Why  are  tlie  summits  of  the  Apennines  covered  with  snow  during 
the  winter  only,  while  those  of  the  Alps  are  covered  during  the  entire 
year? 

10.  Compare  the  latitude  of  southern  Italy  with  that  of  southern 
California. 

11.  We  send  to  Italy  cotton,  wheat,  tobacco,  copper,'  and  farm  ma- 
chinery.    Mention  some  of  our  states  in  which  these  are  produced. 

12.  Find  how  many  people  there  are  in  Italy  per  square  mile. 


ITALY 


131 


21.  Italian  Cities 
Some  of  the  cities  of  Italy  are  very  old  and  contain 
objects  of  historic  interest  that  have  existed  through 
many  centuries.  In  some  of  these  cities  there  are 
famous  art  galleries  in  which  the  works  of  Italian 
artists  have  been  preserved. 


^^%M:''''^'' 


Island  in  the  Tiber,  Rome 

Rome  has  been  called  the  "  Eternal  City."  It  was 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  Roman  Empire.  As  the  home 
of  the  Pope  it  has  been  for  many  centuries  the  center  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  is  now  the  capital  city  of 
Italy.  Many  travelers  are  attracted  to  Rome  by  the  ruins 
of  structures  of  ancient  splendor.  One  of  these  is  the 
Colosseum,  an  open-air  theater  in  which  there  were  seats 
for  eighty-seven  thousand  people.  Tlie  Roman  Forum 
was  an  open  space,  originally  a  market  in  which  the 
citizens  congregated.      Here   Cicero  and  other  Roman 


132 


EUROPE 


orators  delivered  their  famous  orations.  Columns  and 
crumbling  walls  about  the  Forum  give  some  idea  of  the 
grand  and  beautiful  buildings  that  once  surrounded  it. 
St.  Peter's  Cathedral  in  Rome  is  the  largest  church  in  the 
world.  The  adjoining  Vatican,  which  is  the  residence  of 
the  Pope,  is  an  immense  palace.     It  contains  as  many 


■  ■'Til  [11 


^iiiifjii 


St.  Peter's,  and  part  of  the  Vatican 

as  eleven  thousand  rooms.  In  its  art  galleries  are  choice 
paintings,  statues,  vases,  and  other  works  of  art.  In  the 
Sistine  Chapel,  a  part  of  the  Vatican,  there  are  cele- 
brated paintings  by  Michelangelo. 

The  city  of  Venice  has  had  a  peculiar  history.  When 
the  tribes  from  the  north  invaded  Italy,  some  of  the  inhab- 
itants fled  from  the  mainland  to  a  group  of  small  islands. 
Making  these  their  home,  they  became  venturesome  sail- 
ors, carrying  on  commerce  between  Europe  and  eastern 
countries,  and  Venice  grew  rich  and  powerful.  The 
buildings  of  this  city  rest  upon  more  than  one  hundred 


ITALY 


133 


islands.  Canals  among  the  islands  and  across  them 
serve  as  streets,  and  over  these  there  are  several  hun- 
dred bridges.  One  famous  bridge,  tlie  Rialto,  which  is 
mentioned  in  Shakspeare's  "  Merchant  of  Venice,"  is 
more  than  four  hundred  years  old.     Among  the  public 


Venice  —  Beginning  of  the  Grand  Canal 

buildings  of  interest  are  St.  Mark's  Cathedral,  one  of 
the  finest  in  Europe,  and  the  palace  of  the  chief  official, 
who  was  called  the  Doge. 

The  silence  in  the  city  of  Venice  is  very  impres- 
sive. There  are  no  horses  and  carts  clattering  over 
pavements.  The  people  generally  travel  about  in 
light  boats,  called  gondolas.  The  boatmen,  called 
gondoliers,  stand  upon  the  sterns  of  the  boats  and 
row  them  along.  The  city  is  now  connected  by  a 
railroad   with    the   mainland  of   Italy,   and    since    the 


134 


EUROPE 


construction  of  tunnels  through  the  Alps  trade  with 
other  countries  of  Europe  is  carried  on  much  more 
easily  than  in  the  time  when  goods  were  carried  over 
the  mountain  passes. 

After  the  long  period  of  the  Middle  Ages  learning 
began  to  revive  in  Italy.     The  city  of  Florence  was  the 


Florence  and  the  Ponte  Vecchio 

center  of  this  revival.  Many  of  its  citizens  became 
famous.  Among  them  were  Michelangelo  and  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  both  of  whom  were  architects,  sculptors,  and 
painters,  and  Dante,  the  great  Italian  poet.  In  Florence 
there  are  many  old  frescoed  buildings.  The  dome  of  the 
cathedral  is  only  a  little  smaller  than  that  of  St.  Peter's. 
The  campanile,  or  bell  tower,  designed  by  Giotto,  is  nearly 
three  hundred  feet  high,  and  is  regarded  as  extremely 
beautiful. 

The  largest  Italian  city  is  Naples.     It  is  situated  on 
the  beautiful  Bay  of  Naples  and  has  an  excellent  har- 


ITALY 


135 


bor.  It  is  the  center  of  the  agricultural  interests  of 
southern  Italy.  In  ancient  times  it  was  an  important 
seaport  of  the  Romans,  and  then  it  was  a  city  of  wealth 
and  beauty.  Since  then  it  has  changed  greatly.  Its 
narrow  streets  are  now  crowded  with  people,  thousands 
of  Avhom  suffer  from  extreme  poverty. 


Naples  and  Vesuvius 

Naples  has  become  familiar  to  the  world  because  of 
the  volcano  of  Vesuvius,  which  stands  across  the  bay 
to  the  south  of  the  city.  In  the  year  79  a.  d.  this 
volcano  became  active,  and  a  great  eruption  occurred 
that  destroyed  many  towns  and  buried  the  cities  of 
Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.  These  two  cities  were 
forgotten  for  many  centuries,  but  about  a  century 
ago  a  peasant,  while  digging  a  well,  struck  his  spade 


136 


EUROPE 


against  a  statue,  and  the  interest  that  this  aroused  led 
to  the  discovery  of  the  ruins  of  Pompeii.  Excavations 
have  revealed  streets  and  buildings  and  many  inter- 
esting objects.  Even  the  forms  of  human  beings  and 
of  dogs  have  been  preserved.  From  all  these  discov- 
eries  much    has    been  learned   about   the   life    of   the 


Ruins  at  Pompeii 

ancient  Romans.  In  the  museum  at  Naples  there  are 
many  curiosities  which  have  been  taken  from  the 
buried  cities. 

Since  that  time  Vesuvius  has  had  many  eruptions. 
One  of  the  most  destructive  was  in  the  year  1906,  when 
many  villages  were  destroyed  by  streams  of  hot  lava 
and  falling  dust.  The  violent  eruption  of  such  a  vol- 
cano is  a  most  terrifying  sight.  While  a  dense  cloud 
of  steam  is  poured  from  the  summit  there  are  heavy 
rumblings  beneath,  and  by  sudden  and  loud  explosions 


ITALY 


137 


hot  lava  is  thrown  high  into  the  air.     This  process  is 
continually  repeated  while  the  eruption  lasts. 

Messina,  across  the  Strait  of  Messina  in  Sicily,  has 
been  a  city  of  considerable  importance.  The  Messina 
oranges,  common  in  our  markets,  remind  us  that  it  is 
a  port  for  the  shipment  of  the  fruits  of  southern  Italy 


Milan 

and  Sicily.  In  the  year  1908  this  city  was  visited  by 
the  most  terrible  disaster  that  has  ever  been  known  in 
Europe.  A  violent  earthquake,  in  about  half  a  minute 
of  time,  destroyed  the  lives  of  over  two  hundred  thou- 
sand people  in  Messina  and  other  towns  of  the  vicinity 
and  over  a  billion  dollars  worth  of  property.  Many 
people  were  killed  by  falling  buildings;  many  were 
drowned  by  a  great  wave  that  swept  in  from  the  sea, 
and  some  were  burned  by  fires  that  broke  out  in  the 
ruins. 


138 


EUROPE 


In  northern  Italy,  Milan  is  the  center  of  the  silk 
trade  of  the  country.  Railroads  from  Milan  through 
Alpine  tunnels  make  it  a  great  commercial  center.  It 
contains  a  iliagnificent  cathedral. 

Genoa  is  a  seaport  of  much  importance.  Centuries 
ago  it  shared  with  Venice  the  overland  trade  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  famous 
also  as  the  birthplace  of  Columbus. 


1.  Rome  is  on  the  Tiber  River.  About  how 
far  is  it  from  the  coast? 

2.  About  how  far  is  it  from  Rome  to 
Florence? 

3.  What  city  of  Canada  is  in  about  the 
same  latitude  as  Venice? 

4.  Milan  is  in  what  direction  from  Venice? 

5.  Turin,  like  Milan,  is-  a  center  of  trade 
between  Italy  and  the  countries  beyond  the 
Alps.    About  how  far  is  it  from  Milan? 

6.  In  what  direction  from  Genoa  is  Milan? 

7.  Pisa  has  a  wonderful  leaning  tower.  In 
what  direction  is  it  from  Florence? 

8.  Brindisi  is  an  important  jiort  of  southern  Italy, 
the  coast  is  it  situated? 

9.  In  what  part  of  Sicily  is  the  volcano,  Mt 


Tower  at  Pisa 


On  what  part  of 


The  Roman  Colosseum 


Etna? 

10.  Palermo  is  in  a 
fruit  district  of  Sicily. 
In  what  part  of  the 
island  is  it? 

11.  Find  how  large 
the  leading  cities  of 
Italy  are  and  name 
them  in  the  order  of 
population. 

12.  Make  a  map  of 
Italy,  showing  the 
mountains,  rivers,  and 
principal  cities. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 


139 


22.    Austria-Hungary 

The  Empire  of  Austria-Hungary  was  formed  in  1869 
by  the  union  of  the  Empire  of  Austria  and  the  Kingdom 
of  Hungary.  No  other  nation  of  the  work!  has  such  a 
mixture  of  differ- 
ent peoples  as  are 
Hving  in  this 
double  monarchy. 
There  are  about 
twenty  nationali- 
ties, and  it  is  not 
unusual  to  find 
three  or  four  lan- 
guages'spoken  in 
one  small  village. 
Among  the  vari- 
ous peoples  are 
many  wandering 
gypsies.  In  one  of 
the  eastern  prov- 
inces alone  there 
are  nearly  one 
hundred  thousand 
of  them.  This 
condition  of  the 
population  is  unfortunate,  since  nothing  tends  more  to 
prevent  the  parts  of  a  nation  from  becoming  iniited  than 
the  inability  of  the  people  to  speak  the  same  language. 

The  mixture  of  races  in  Austria-Hungary  is  largely 
because  the  empire  is  built  upon  the  ruins  of  nations 


Gypsy  Family,  Eastern  Austria 


140 


EUROPE 


and  tribes  that  have  lost  their  power.  Through  many 
centuries  there  was  a  tendency  for  tribes  from  Asia  to 
emigrate  and  force  their  way  into  this  southeastern 
corner  of  Europe.  In  times  of  warfare  armies  moving 
either  to  the  east  or  to  tlie  west  have  naturally  followed 


Valley  of  the  Danube 

the  valley  of  the  Danube  River,  and  have  repeatedly 
overrun  that  region  and  brought  calamity  upon  it. 

At  the  present  time  the  different  peoples  retain  very 
strong  prejudices  against  one  another.  It  is  difficult  to 
arouse  in  them  a  spirit  of  patriotic  pride  in  a  connnon 
country.  The  necessity  of  combining  for  the  common 
defense  against  other  nations  has  been  the  strongest 
bond  of  union.  Austria  alone  might  be  taken  into  the 
German  Empire,  and  Hungary  alone  might  easily  be 
overcome  by  Russia,  but  the  two  together  would  be  able 
to  furnish  an  army  of  three  or  four  million  men  for  the 
common  defense. 

Each    of   the    seventeen    provinces   has  a  legislative 


AUSTRIA-HUx\GARY 


141 


assembly,  or  diet,  of  its  own,  and  Austria  and  Hungary 
have  their  separate  parhaments.  Besides  these  there 
is  a  legislative  body  composed  of  members  from  the  two 
parliaments.  Tliis  has  authority  in  all  matters  relating 
to  the  empire  as  a  whole. 


J^^ 

-~\                       r'-C^^          .-V       - 

'?^'" '*^"^Li  f 

iitf^l 

^^m          1   '      j    ^^^^^^1 

~^i«^^r 

m 

„.  "^^SS^ 

Hungarian  Peasants 

The  Austrians  are  a  Germanic  people.  The  most 
numerous  and  important  people  of  Hungary  are  Hun- 
garians, or  Magyars,  who  belong  to  the  Slavonic  branch 
of  the  Caucasian  Race.  They  are  a  most  attractive 
people,  very  polite  and  fond  of  music  and  social  life. 
They  live  in  villages  of  low  huts  with  thatched  roofs. 

This  country  is  famous  for  varied  and  beautiful 
scenery.  It  is  separated  from  surrounding  countries 
on  nearly  all  sides  by  mountain  ranges,  aud  much  of 
its  surface  is  covered  with  mountains.  A  section  in 
the  west  adjoining  Switzerland  resembles  that  country. 
It  is  known  as  the  Austrian  Tyrol.  In  the  east  the 
province  of  Transylvania  is  of  the  same  nature  and 
scarcely  less  beautiful. 


142 


EUROPE 


In  the  interior  the  valley  of  the  Danube  forms  the 
broad  plain  of  Hungary,  which  is  hemmed  in  by  a 
circuit  of  mountains.  This  great  river  is  of  immense 
importance  for  travel  and  commerce.  It  is  navigable 
from  a  point  near  the  German  border  throughout  its 


National  Dance,  Roumanians,  Transylvania 

entire  course  to  the  Black  Sea.  This  is  of  special 
advantage  because  the  mountains  in  the  southwest 
render  the  passage  to  the  Adriatic  Sea  very  difficult. 

In  such  a  mountainous  country  there  is  naturally 
a  great  variety  of  temperature  and  rainfall  and  hence 
of  agricultural  products.  The  Danube  valley  is  one  of 
the  great  wheat-producing  regions  of  Europe,  yet  the 
people  themselves,  like  the  peasants  of  Germany,  live 
largely  upon  rye  bread.  Most  of  the  wheat  is  exported. 
Austria-Hungary  produces  more  grain  than  any  other 
country  of  Europe  except  Russia.  In  the  cities  of 
Europe  Hungarian  flour  is  regarded  as  the  best  variety 
and  is  sold  at  the  highest  prices. 


AUSTRI A-H  UXGARY 


143 


The  mountains  and  hills  are  covered  with  forests  and 
yield  much  lumber.  Where  the  forests  have  been  cut 
down  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  are  pastured  among 
the  hills.     Many  cattle  also  are  raised. 

There  are  supplies  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  mountains, 


Parliament  House  and  Cathedral,  Vienna 

and  many  rich  mines  of  other  minerals.  Although 
there  is  such  an  abundance  of  materials  and  water 
power  is  plentiful,  manufacturing  has  not  yet  de- 
veloped. The  people  still  do  a  large  part  of  their 
manufacturing  on  small  machines  or  by  hand  at  home. 
The  truth  is  that  most  of  them  have  been  kept  in 
a  backward  condition  through  the  unfortunate  circum- 
stances of  their  history,  and  they  are  only  beginning  to 
enjoy  the  advantages  of  modern  civilization.  When 
these  people  are  better  informed  and  more  thoroughly 
united,  Austria-Hungary,  by  reason  of  its  great  natural 
resources,  may  become  one  of  the  leading  manufacturing 
countries  of  Europe. 

The  largest  city  is  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria.     It 


144 


EUROPE 


is  situated  at  a  point  where  the  Danube  flows  through 
an  opening  between  the  mountains.  Vienna  is  a  great 
center  for  railroads  and  for  trade  between  eastern  and 
w^estern  Europe.  It  has  great  wealth  and  is  said  to  be 
the  gayest  city  of  Europe  except  Paris.     It  is  one  of  the 


Palace  and  Bridge,  Budapest 

oldest  cities  of  Europe.  When  the  Turks  from  Asia 
strove  to  lead  their  armies  across  the  mountains  into 
central  Europe,  Vienna  became  a  stronghold  of  defense 
and  succeeded  in  checking  the  advance  of  the  Turks. 

Budapest,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  is  a  twin  city,  con- 
sisting of  Buda  and  Pest.  These  two  towns  were  united 
in  1872.  They  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Danube  and 
are  connected  by  a  long  bridge.  Buda  is  built  on  hills 
and  bluffs  above  the  river  and  contains  a  number  of 
palaces  and  fortresses.  Pest  is  on  a  sandy  plain.  It  is 
much  larger  than  Buda  and  is  growing  rapidly.  It  con- 
tains many  large  steam  flour  mills,  and  hundreds  of 
vessels  at  its  wharves  are  constantly  unloading  grain 
and  loading  again  with  flour. 


AUSTRI A-I I UNGARY 


145 


The  largest  seaport  is  Trieste,  which  has  a  good  harbor 
and  is  connected  with  Vienna  by  a  railroad,  which  has 
been  built  across  the  mountains  at  great  expense.  This 
road  has  many  steep 
grades  and  viaducts 
and  tunnels.  It  af- 
fords beautiful  scen- 
ery for  travelers,  but 
is  an  expensive  route 
for  the  transportation 
of  goods. 

1 .  What  mountain 
ranges  form  parts  of  the 
boundary  of  Austria  -Hun- 
gary? 

2.  Give  reasons  why  this 
country  has  not  a  large  ocean 
commerce. 

3.  Why  has  the  Rhine 
River  greater  advantages 
for  transportation  than  the 
Danube? 

4.  Much  fine  glassware 
is  made  in  Bohemia  because 
of  the  sand  and  coloring 
matter  found  there.    In   what  part  of  the  country  is  Bohemia? 

5.  Some  of  the  best  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  Austria-Hungary  are 
near  Pragup.     Where  is  that  city  situated? 

6.  Kronstadt  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city.     In  what  part  of 
the  country  is  it? 

7.  Innsbruck  is  a  favorite  resort  for  summer  tourists.    In  what  direc- 
tion is  it  from  Vienna? 

8.  At  Carlsbad   there   are  celebrated   hot   springs.     About   how  far 
is  it  from  Prague? 

9.  There  are  regular  lines  of  steamers  from  Trieste  to  New  York. 
Across  what  waters  do  vessels  go  in  making  the  voyage? 

10.   Make  a  map  of  Austria,  showing  mountains,  rivers,  and  cities. 


Pulver  Tower,  Prague 


146 


EUROPE 


23.   Russia 

Russia  is  the  largest  country  in  the  world.  It  extends 
from  central  Europe  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  and 
comprises  more  than  one  half  of  the  continent  of  Europe 
and  more  than  one  third  of  Asia.  It  includes  about 
one  fifth  of  all  the  land  surface  of  the  earth. 


The  Dnieper  at  Kiev 

European  Russia  has  but  little  variety  of  physical  fea- 
tures. It  is  for  the  most  part  a  vast  plain,  with  scarcely 
a  hill  to  be  seen.  The  surface  from  all  sides  rises  slightly, 
forming  a  low  plateau  in  the  central  part.  The  Valdai 
Hills  on  this  plateau  form  the  parting  of  the  waters  that 
flow  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
rivers  rising  in  this  central  plateau  flow  slowly  away  in 
various  directions.  In  the  absence  of  steep  slopes  and 
waterfalls  many  of  these  rivers  are  navigable  for  nearly 
their  entire  length.     Canals  are  easily  constructed  con- 


RUSSIA 


147 


necting  the  liead  waters  of  the  rivers  so  that  boats  may 
pass  up  one  river  and  down  another,  thus  finding  a  way 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another.  There  are 
nearly  fifty  thousand  miles  of  navigable  waterways  in 
Russia. 

The  Caspian  Sea,  between  Europe  and  Asia,  is  mostly 
within  Russian  territory.  It  is  the  largest  inland  sea  in 
the  world.  It 
is  in  a  low 
depression  of 
the  land  and  is 
about  eighty- 
five  feet  lower 
than  the  level 
of  the  ocean. 
Since  it  has  no 
outlet,  it  is 
very  salt,  like 
our  Great  Salt 
Lake.  It  was 
formerly  nuich 
larger  than  at  present,  but  evaporation  removes  the 
water  faster  than  it  is  poured  in  by  the  rivers,  and  so 
it  is  slowly  becoming  smaller. 

Russia  has  great  extremes  of  climate.  At  such  a 
distance  from  the  Atlantic  the  westerly  winds  have 
lost  their  modifying  effects,  and  their  temperature  cor- 
responds to  that  of  the  land  over  which  they  have 
passed.  The  summers  are  warm,  but  the  winters,  ex- 
cept in  the  southern  part,  are  long  and  very  cold. 

The  rainfall  is  not  so  great  as  in  western  Europe. 


Sunday  Morning  Gathering  near  St.  Petersburg 


148  EUROPE 

Although  there  are  no  lofty  mountain  ranges  extending 
north  and  south  to  rob  the  winds  of  moisture,  so  much 
rain  falls  from  the  air  in  its  passage  across  Europe  from 
the  Atlantic  that  there  is  not  enough  moisture  remain- 
ing to  provide  Russia  with  an  abundant  supply.  In  the 
western  part  there  is  generally  enough  for  agricultural 
purposes,  but  in  the  east  droughts  are  liable  to  occur. 
Southern  Russia  is  south  of  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerly 
winds  and  is  therefore  so  dry  that  large  areas  are  suit- 
able only  for  herding. 

In  northern  and  central  Russia  the  climate  and 
vegetation  are  similar  to  those  of  the  northern  portion 
of  North  America.  On  the  northern  plains,  or  tundras, 
the  climate  is  too  severe  for  the  growth  of  trees.  The 
ground  is  frozen  to  a  great  depth.  In  summer  the  sur- 
face thaws  only  enough  to  support  a  growth  of  moss. 
Farther  south  the  country  is  covered  with  vast  forests 
hundreds  of  miles  in  extent,  and  in  these  are  many  fur- 
bearing  animals.  South  of  the  central  forest  regions 
are  broad  treeless  plains  called  steppes.  These  are 
similar  to  the  prairie  lands  and  the  Great  Plains  of  the 
United  States. 

Most  of  the  Russians  are  descendants  of  Slavonic 
peoples,  or  Slavs.  Their  country  is  so  remote  from 
the  seacoast  and  was  formerly  so  much  overrun  by 
tribes  of  barbarians  that  for  centuries  it  remained 
far  behind  the  other  countries  of  Europe  in  the  matter 
of  progress.  At  length  the  Czar,  Peter  the  Great,  under- 
took to  introduce  among  his  people  the  civilization  of 
the  west.  He  forced  upon  some  of  his  subjects  many 
new  methods  and  customs,  and  Russia  became  a  power 


RUSSIA 


149 


in  Europe.  The  population  of  Russia  in  Europe  is  about 
as  great  as  that  of  the  whole  of  North  America,  and  most 
of  the  inhabitants  live  upon  the  fertile  plains  between 
the  forests  and  the  arid  steppes  of  the  south. 

In  all  there  are  about   one  hundred  and  forty  mil- 
lion   peo])le,  a    large   proportion    of    Avhom    were   once 


Russian  Peasants  on  the  way  to  Work 

the  serfs,  or  slaves,  of  wealthy  nobles.  These  were 
emancipated  by  the  Czar  known  as  Alexander  the 
Great.  A  large  amount  of  land  was  divided  among  the 
liberated  serfs,  each  serf  receiving  a  small  homestead. 
The  increase  of  population  has  reduced  the  amount  of 
land  for  each  family  to  such  an  extent  that  most  of  the 
people  are  very  poor.  A  large  amount  of  Russian 
territory  is  owned  in  great  estates  by  the  Czar,  the 
Russian  nobility,  and  the  government,  and  only  a  part 
of  such  territory  is  cultivated.  The  peasants  need  the 
use  of  this  idle  land  and  for  some  time  have  been  de- 
manding it  of  tlie  government. 


150 


EUROPE 


The  dissatisfaction  of  the  peasants  has  caused  serious 
troubles  and  occasional  riots  and  assassinations.  In 
form,  the  government  has  'been  an  absolute  monarchy. 
The  will  of  the  Czar  and  his  advisers  has  been  supreme, 
and  the  masses  of  the  people  have  been  subject  to  very 
severe  laws.     No  peasant,  for  example,  could  sell  his 


Palaces  of  Nobles,  St.  Petersburg 

land,  or  leave  home  and  travel  from  one  town  to  an- 
other, without  permission  from  government  officials.  A 
Russian  statesman  once  said,  "  In  this  country  nothing  is 
permitted.  Everything  is  either  done  by  order  or  for- 
bidden." To  us  liberty-loving  Americans  such  restric- 
tions seem  very  severe,  as  indeed  they  are  ;  but  we  should 
remember,  on  the  other  hand,  the  difficulty  of  ruling 
such  a  number  of  ignorant  people,  more  than  one  hun- 
dred million  of  whom  can  neither  read  nor  write. 

The  government  has  now  granted  the  people  some 
reform  measures.  The  peasants  are  permitted  to  change 
their  residences  as  they  wish.  They  are  also  permitted 
to  choose  a  representative  assembly  called  the  douma, 


RUSSIA 


151 


but  this  assembly  is  granted  very  little  power  in  making 
the  laws  of  the  empire.  Members  of  such  a  body, 
elected  by  ignorant  peasants,  cannot  be  expected  to 
make  wise  laws  for  the  government  of  all.  Althougli 
there  is  great  need  of  reform,  it  will  probably  be  many 


The  Great  Saturday  Market,  Helsingfors,  Finland 


years  before  the  hundred  million  peasants  will  be  capable 
of  exercising  self-government  to  a  very  great  extent. 
As  one  of  our  own  statesmen  has  declared,  "  The  capacity 
for  self-government  does  not  come  to  man  by  nature; 
it  is  an  art  to  be  learned." 

There  are  many  Jews  among  the  tradesmen  of  the 
towns  and  villages  of  western  Russia,  and  prejudices 
against  these  have  often  led  to  riots  and  bloodshed. 
Many  Russian  Jews  have  emigrated  to  America  on 
account  of  the  fear  of  massacre.  In  1906  as  many  as 
two  hundred  thousand  of  them  came  to  this  country. 


152 


EUROPE 


Finland,  in  the  northwestern  part  of  Russia  south  of 
Lapland,  belongs  to  the  Russian  Empire,  but  is  partially 
independent.  It  has  a  parliament,  but  the  Czar  has 
the  right  to  veto  any  acts  that  he  disapproves.  This 
relation  has  led  to  frequent  troubles,  and  many  Fhms 
have  emigrated  to  the  United  States  on  account  of  their 
dislike  of  the  Russian  a^overnment. 


In  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  16,400  feet  above  the  Sea 

A  section  of  the  western  part  of  Russia,  which  borders 
on  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary,  was  once  a  part  of 
Poland.  This  was  an  independent  nation  with  a  terri- 
tory extending  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains  to  the 
Baltic  Sea.  After  severe  struggles  with  neighboring 
countries  it  was  finally  conquered  and  divided  among 
the  three  countries,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria. 

1.  What  countries  border  on  European  Russia? 

2.  Name  the  bodies  of  water  that  form  the  border  of  Russia. 

3.  Name  several  smaller  gulfs  and  seas  that  are  partly  within  the 
borders  of  the  country. 


RUSSIA  153 

4.  WTiere  are  the  Ural  Mountains  and  the  Caucasus  Mountains? 

5.  Mt.  Elbruz,  a  peak  of  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  is  tlie  highest 
mountain  in  Europe.     Find  how  much  higher  it  is  than  Mt.  Blanc. 

6.  ^\'llat  are  the  three  largest  rivers  of  Russia,  and  into  what  bodies 
of  water  do  they  flow? 

7.  What  effect  must  the  long  and  severe  winters  have  upon  the  use- 
fulness of  these  rivers? 

8.  Why  does  the  fact  that  the  Caspian  Sea  has  no  outlet  render  it  of 
little  use  for  commerce? 

9.  What  part  of  Russia  borders  on  the  ocean,  and  why  is  this  of  little 
advantage? 

10.  Across  about  how  many  degrees  of  latitude  does  Russia  extend? 

11.  Why  is  the  climate  of  northern  Russia  more  severe  than  that  of 
the  northern  part  of  Norway? 

24.  Russian  Industries  and  Cities 
Russica  is  one  of  the  leading  agricnltural  countries  of 
the  world.  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  people  are 
either  personally  engaged  in  agriculture  or  are  otherwise 
interested  in  it.  The  richest  farming  region  is  the 
"black  earth"  belt,  south  of  the  line  of  the  great 
forests.  This  is  a  vast  belt  of  very  fertile  soil  reaching 
across  European  Russia  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains 
to  the  Ural  Mountains. 

South  of  this  belt  and  extending  from  the  central 
part  of  the  country  to  the  east  is  the  region  of  grassy 
plains,  or  steppes.  These  extend  entirely  across  Asia  to 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  yield  excellent  harvests  of  grain. 

Among  the  principal  crops  are  grain,  sugar  beets, 
flax,  and  hemp.  Russian  peasants,  like  those  in  some 
other  European  countries,  raise  rye  for  their  own  bread 
and  wheat  for  a  market  crop.  The  Russian  wheat 
crop  has  been  increasing  rapidly,  and  in  1909  exceeded 
that  of  the  United  States.  Much  more  tlian  one  half  of 
all  the  flax  produced  in  the  world  is  raised  in  Russia. 


154 


EUROPE 


Peasant  "Woman  Cutting  Wheat 


Many  Russian  nobles  own  estates  of  thousands  of  acres 
each.  They  employ  peasants  at  low  wages  to  work 
upon  their  land.  But  most  of  the  crops  are  raised  upon 
the  small  farms  of  poor  and  ignorant  peasants,  who  are 

- I    allotted  small 

' %it  f  ^  amounts  of 
land  by  the 
local  authori- 
ties. About 
one  hundred 
million  of 
these  people 
live  in  one 
hundred  thou- 
sand villages. 
Under  re- 
cent provisions  of  the  government  some  of  the  most 
thrifty  peasants  are  buying  their  land  and  adopting 
more  improved  methods  of  farming,  but  such  improve- 
ments are  very  slow.  Most  of  the  villages  are  remote 
from  railroads  and  larger  towns,  and  the  benefits  of 
improved  conditions  reach  them  slowly.  There  are  in 
Russia  no  agricultural  papers  or  experiment  stations 
to  aid  the  farmers,  such  as  we  have  in  the  United  States. 
The  great  masses  of  the  people  live  several  centuries 
behind  the  standard  of  the  countries  of  western  Europe. 
On  the  arid  steppes  of  the  south  herds  of  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses  are  pastured.  In  the  springtime  these 
steppes  are  covered  with  green  grass  and  beautiful 
flowers,  but  as  the  season  advances  all  vegetation  is 
withered  by  the  hot  sun. 


RUSSIAN    INDUSTRIES    AND   CITIES  155 

A  vast  amount  of  lumber  and  wood  is  obtained  from 
the  forests,  which  cover  more  than  one  third  of  the 
country.  The  more  thickly  settled  countries  of  Europe 
depend  partly  upon  Russia  for  their  lumber  supply,  and 
wood  is  the  chief  fuel  in  Russian  houses  and  even  in 
the  factories. 

Russia  contains  large  coal  and  iron  mines,  as  well  as 
other  minerals ;  but  most  of  the  mines  are  still  at  long 


Farm  House  in  Caucasia 

distances  from  railroads,  and  hence  their  development 
is  slow.  The  Ural  Mountains  are  especially  rich  in 
various  minerals.  Nearly  all  of  the  world's  supply  of 
platinum  is  obtained  from  the  western  slope  of  these 
mountains. 

Next  to  the  United  States,  Russia  produces  more 
petroleum  than  any  other  country.  An  immense  quan- 
tity is  obtained  in  the  province  of  Caucasia  near  the 
shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  town  of  Baku  is  the 
center  of  this  industry.  Most  of  its  people  and  those  of 
the  surrounding  region  are  at  work  at  its  oil  wells  or 


156 


EUROPE 


in  the  refineries.  Russian  oil  is  poorer  in  quality  than 
American,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  used  as  fuel  in 
factories  and  on  locomotives  and  steamboats. 

For  a  country  of  such  great  size  there  are  but  few 
Russia.     This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact 


large  cities  in 


m^ 

J^^^^^^i^u 

'^^t^^^j^ 

1^^^^^ ,  •  ■  hIH 

^^^a 

Moscow 

that  the  people  have  been  ignorant  and  poor  and  have 
supplied'  their  wants  chiefly  from  the  farms  and  from 
home  manufactures.  Another  explanation  is  that  in 
the  past  there  have  been  small  opportunities  for  carry- 
in  o-  on  commerce  with  other  countries. 

We  usually  expect  to  find  the  large  cities  of  a 
country  upon  the  seacoast  or  near  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
but  until  recent  times  Russia  has  not  had  such  situa- 
tions available.  Moscow,  the  ancient  capital,  was 
located  near  the  center  of  the  country.     Although  this 


RUSSIAN    IXDUSTRIKS    AND   CITIES 


157 


was  not  a  favorable  situation  for  commercial  relations 

with  foreign  countries,  it  was  the  natural  center  for 

trade  and   communication  at  home.     It  is  a  railroad 

center,  and  it  has  been  easy  to  build  canals  from  Moscow 

connecting 

with    rivers 

leading  to  all 

parts    of    the 

empire. 

Although 
Moscow  is  no 
longer  the 
capital,  it  is 
still  the  cher- 
ished city  of 
the  people. 
The  Russians 
belong  to  the 
Greek    divi- 

•  n      ,1  Church  and  the  Tower  of  Ivan,  in  the  Kremlin 

Catholic  Church.  They  are  much  devoted  to  their  re- 
ligion and  regard  Moscow  as  the  Holy  City,  The  oldest 
part  of  the  city,  called  the  Kremlin,  is  surrounded  by 
high  walls,  which  were  once  built  to  defend  the  capital 
against  the  attacks  of  wild  Tartar  tribes.  The  Kremlin 
contains  the  old  government  buildings,  palaces,  and 
beautiful  churches  with  gilded  domes.  The  celebrated 
bell  tower  in  the  Kremlin,  called  the  Ivan  Tower,  is 
three  hundred  and  twenty-five  feet  high  and  contains 
thirty-six  large  bells,  some  of  which  are  made  of  silver. 
In  Russia  bells  are  regarded  as  sacred  instruments  of 


158 


EUROPE 


worship,  and  many  are  made  at  great  expense  to  pro- 
duce soft,  rich  tones. 

About  two  hundred  years  ago  the  Czar,  Peter  the  Great, 
was  determined  to  found  a  city  with  access  to  the  sea. 
After  gaining  new  territory  bordering  on  the  Baltic  Sea, 


St.  Petersburg  from  across  the  Neva 

he  founded  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg  and  made  it  the 
capital  of  the  country.  The  circumstances  connected 
with  the  building  of  this  city  were  very  peculiar.  Cities 
ordinarily  spring  up  by  gradual  growth  at  points  where 
manufacturing  or  commerce  naturally  brings  many 
people  together.  The  site  of  St.  Petersburg  had  been 
a  marshy,  unhealthful  region  with  a  sparse  population. 
The  city  was  brought  into  existence  chiefly  through  the 
determination  of  a  single  powerful  Czar.  Thousands  of 
workmen  were  sent  to  the  spot  to  erect  houses,  and 
people  were  even  forced  to  remove  from  other  parts  of 
Russia  and  occupy  them.  The  Neva  River,  on  which 
the  city  was  built,  was  so  shallow  that  a  canal  twenty 
miles  long  had  to  be  constructed  that  vessels  might 
reach  the  sea.     The  climate  is  so  severe  that  both  canal 


RUSSIAN   INDUSTRIES   AND   CITIES 


159 


and  river  are  frozen  over  during  several  months  of  the 
year  and  navigation  becomes  impossible.  The  need  of 
a  port  leading  to  the  sea  is  so  great  that,  notwithstand- 
ing all  these  disadvantages,  St.  Petersburg  has  become 
a  large  and 
flourishing 
city.  No  ex- 
pense has  been 
spared  to  make 
it  equal  in 
splendor  to 
other  capitals 
of  Europe. 

St.  Isaac's 
Cathedral  was 
constructed 
from  very  val- 
uable materi- 
als at  a  cost  of 
many  millions 
of  dollars.  The 
Nevski  Prospekt  is  one  of  the  finest  streets  in  Europe. 

After  the  Russians  succeeded  in  extending  their  terri- 
tory to  the  Black  Sea,  more  than  a  century  ago,  the 
city  of  Odessa  sprang  up.  Through  this  port  Russia 
has  commerce  with  the  outer  world  by  way  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Odessa  is  the  main  outlet  for  the  wheat 
fields  of  southern  Russia.  It  contains  large  flour  mills 
and  is  a  great  center  for  the  shipment  of  grain. 

Much  of  the  inland  trade  of  Russia  is  carried  on  by 
means  of  fairs.     The  largest  fair  in  the  world  is  held 


Nevski  Prospekt,  St.  Petersburg 


IGO 


EUROPE 


every  summer  at  Nijni  Novgorod.  Thousands  of  people 
assemble  there  from  various  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia 
and  exchange  goods  of  many  kinds,  including  furs  from 

the  forest  re- 
gions of  Eus- 
sia,  tea  from 
China,  and 
manufactured 
articles  from 
western  Eu- 
rope. Thou- 
sands of  other 
fairs  are  held 
every  year  in 
various  parts 
of    the    coun- 


d 

- 

^■^ 

~^wm 

■MM 

P 

S 

|^ra[--^-^'v^ 

w  '  Hffi^^V^^^HI 

Copyright  by  Keys 

Fair  at  Nijni  Novgorod 


try. 


1.  Find  another  European  city  that  is  in  about  the  same  hititude  as 
St.  Petersburg. 

2.  Find  what  cities  of  Europe  are  larger  than  St.  Petersburg. 

3.  Wliy  are  there  no  large  cities  in  the  northern  and  eastern  parts 
of  Russia? 

4.  Archangel  is  the  largest  port  on  the  Arctic  Ocean.     Give  reasons 
why  it  is  of  comparatively  little  importance  as  a  port. 

5.  Through  what  waters  does  a  vessel  pass  in  a  voyage  from  Odessa  to 
the  Mediterranean  Sea? 

6.  Why  are  the  ports  of  the  Caspian  Sea  of  but  little  use? 

7.  Petroleum  is  shipped  from  Baku  into  the  interior  of  Russia  by 
way  of  the  Volga  River.     How  far  is  Baku  from  the  mouth  of  the  Volga? 

8.  A  large  amount  of  kerosene  is  shipped  from  the  port  of  Batum. 
On  what  part  of  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea  is  that  port? 

9.  In  what  part  of  Russia  is  Warsaw,  the  former  capital  of  Poland? 

10.  Lodz  is  a  manufacturing  center.    How  far  is  it  from  Warsaw? 

11.  Tiflis  is  an  important  commercial  city  of  the  Russian  province  of 
Trans-Caucasia.     Near  what  range  of  mountains  is  it? 

12.  Sketch  a  map  of  Russia,  showing  the  rivers  and  important  cities. 


TURKEY 


161 


25.    Turkey 

The  large  peninsula  that  extends  south  from  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Russia  is  often  called  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, and  the  countries  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
called  the  Balkan  countries.  Its  population  consists  of 
many  peoples,  and  it  is  divided  into  several  small  coun- 


A  Turkish  Family  near  Constantinople 

tries.  This  is  partly  due  to  mountain  ranges  forming 
natural  divisions  and  partly  to  contests  and  wars  that 
have  occurred. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula  was  the  home 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  a  nation  far  advanced  in  civiliza- 
tion. At  a  later  time  the  Romans  overcame  the  Greeks, 
and  the  Balkan  Peninsula  became  a  part  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  When  the  power  of  the  Romans  declined, 
Slavs  from  Russia  appeared  and  made  room  for  them- 


162 


EUROPE 


selves  by  driving  out  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  These 
Slavs,  who  were  later  known  as  Servians  and  Bulgari- 
ans, became  civiKzed,  and  adopted  the  Christian  religion. 

succeeded  in  crossing 
from  Asia  and 
established  them- 
selves in  south- 
eastern Europe. 
This  conquest  of 
the  Turks  was 
a  great  disaster. 
They  are  natu- 
rally cruel  and 
selfish,  and  their 
rulers  have  op- 
pressed their  sub- 
jects with  heavy 
taxes,  and  have 
taken  no  interest 
in  improvements. 
According  to  the 
Mohammedan  re- 
ligion the  Turks 

Turkish  Women,  Constantinople  believe  that  they 

ought  to  persecute  those  who  do  not  adopt  their  faith. 
Their  government  has  been  so  cruel  and  unjust  that  the 
Christian  nations  of  the  world  have  been  obliged  to  in- 
terfere in  behalf  of  foreign  Christians  residing  in  the 
country. 

During  the  past  century  the  inhabitants  of  several 
sections  of   the    peninsula   have    succeeded    in   freeing 


In   the 

year  1453  the 

Turks  sue 

1 

ii 

/\             ^ 

Ik 

J 

\j)kMm 

Bk 

i 

mBm^fJ^K^ 

n 

'J 

"^^Mk^^^ 

raf 

/ 

^H^^' 

" 

d| 

IP 

f^^i^^^^     tjjps'^ 

'i  .'''^^^ 

TURKEY 


163 


themselves  from  Turkish  rule.  The  Turks  now  hold 
but  a  small  amount  of  territory  in  Europe.  The  Chris- 
tian nations  might  easily  have  driven  them  back  into 
Asia  or  have  taken  possession  of  their  country.  The 
bad  government  of  the  Turks  and  their  cruelty  to 
others  would  have 
been  a  sufficient 
reason  for  taking 
this  course,  but  it 
is  so  difficult  for 
the  nations  of 
Europe  to  agree 
upon  such  a  mat- 
ter that  nothing 
has  been  done. 
Each  nation  is 
afraid  that  some 
other  will  gain 
undue  advantage 
in  such  an  under- 
taking, or  that 
troubles  growing- 
out  of  it  will  lead 
to  a  terrible  Euro- 
pean war. 

Recently  the 
world  has  been  surprised  and  encouraged  by  a  revolu- 
tion and  an  attempted  reformation  made  by  some  of 
the  Turks  of  their  own  accord.  Increased  contact 
with  the  outer  world  and  an  acquaintance  with  the 
ideas  and  customs  of  enlightened  nations  have  made 


Date  Seller,  Constantinople 


164  EUROPE 

the  younger  generation  more  liberal  and  progressive 
than  their  fathers.  In  1908  an  organized  liberal  party, 
who  called  themselves  the  ''  Young  Turks,"  became  so 
powerful  that  they  persuaded  a  portion  of  the  Turkish 
army  to  join  their  cause.  The  ruling  Sultan  was  forced 
to  yield  to  their  demands  and  promised  the  country 
a  partially  representative  government  and  a  constitution 
providing  education,  freedom  of  worship,  reform  in  taxes, 
and  equality  before  the  law.  The  Sultan,  however,  did 
not  fulfill  his  promises,  and  in  1909  the  army  of  the 
"  Young  Turks "  marched  to  tlie  capital,  deposed  the 
Sultan,  and   appointed  another  of  their  own  choice. 

In  Turkey  there  are  many  natural  advantages,  but 
the  people  have  not  profited  by  them.  There  is  much 
fertile  land,  but  farming  is  done  so  poorly  that  it  yields 
small  returns.  Although  there  are  excellent  oppor- 
tunities for  manufacturing,  the  manufactured  products 
are  mostly  handmade  goods.  In  enlightened  and  pro- 
gressive countries  the  governments  strive  to  encourage 
the  people  and  aid  them  in  making  improvements  in  all 
their  industries.  In  Turkey,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
people  have  not  only  been  neglected  but  have  often 
been  prevented  from  endeavoring  to  gain  wealth  by  the 
fact  that  the  tax  gatherer  would  be  likely  to  rob  them 
of  the  greater  part  of  it.  Farmers  have  sometimes  left 
portions  of  their  land  uncultivated  or  have  destroyed 
portions  of  their  crops  in  order  to  avoid  taxation. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Turkish  Empire, 
has  long  been  a  famous  city.  It  was  named  after  the 
Roman  emperor  Constantine,  who  made  it  his  capital, 
and  under  the  Romans  it  became  rich  and  prosperous. 


TURKF.Y 


165 


Under  the  Turks  it  has  lost  much  of  its  former  pros- 
perity and  beauty.  It  has  a  very  desirable  location  for 
the  purposes  of  commerce.  It  is  at  the  easiest  point 
for  passage  between  Europe  and  Asia  and  at  the  meet- 
ing point  of  three  bodies  of  water,  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 


Constantinople  and  the  Golden  Horn 

the  Bosporus,  and  the  Golden  Horn.  It  is  situated  on 
both  sides  of  the  Golden  Horn,  which  is  a  deep,  narrow 
bay  and  receives  its  name  because  of  the  value  of  the 
commerce  that  it  accommodates. 

At  Constantinople  the  Turks  have  strong  fortifica- 
tions on  the  hills  along  the  shore  of  the  Bosporus. 
They  could  easily  prevent  the  passage  of  even  powerful 
warships.  They  thus  control  the  only  waterway  be- 
tween the  Black  Sea   and  the  Mediterranean.     Other 


166 


EUROPE 


nations  have  looked  with  longing  eyes  upon  this  city,  and 
it  has  been  in  part  the  fear  that  some  one  of  them  might 
secure  such  a  ureat  advantage  that  has  prevented  the 

powers  of  Europe 
from  undertaking 
to  overthrow  the 
Turkish  govern- 
ment. 

Constantinople 
has  been  called 
the  "Crossroads" 
of  the  two  conti- 
nents of  Europe 
and  Asia.  Many 
Europeans,  as 
well  as  Turks  and 
other  Asiatic 
people,  dwell 
there  for  pur- 
poses of  trade. 
The  Turks,  or 
Mussulmen  as 
they  are  some- 
times called,  mingle  freely  with  Christians  and  Jews 
during  the  business  hours  of  the  day,  but  at  night  the 
several  classes  retire  to  their  own  quarters.  The  Euro- 
pean quarter  of  the  city  is  on  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Golden  Horn.  The  business  portion  of  this  is  called 
Galata  and  the  residential  section  Pera.  The  Turkish 
section,  on  the  southern  bank,  is  called  Stamboul.  Across 
the  Galata  Bridge,  which  connects  the  Turkish  and  the 


Reading  the  Koran 


TURKEY 


167 


European  sections,  throngs  of  people  of  many  nations  of 
Europe  and  Asia  are  continually  passing. 

In  Staniboul  the  streets  are  narrow  and  filthy. 
There  are  everywhere  indications  of  neglect.  Yet  the 
Turks  have  certain  commendable  traits.  They  follow 
faithfully  the  teachings  of  their  prophet  Mohammed  as 


The  Bosporus 

given  in  their  bible,  the  Koran.  The  Koran  teaches 
the  virtue  of  personal  cleanliness,  and  every  good  Turk 
washes  his  bauds  thoroughly  before  eating.  The  Koran 
forbids  games  of  chance,  hence  there  is  no  gambling. 
Strong  drink  is  denied  to  the  faithful  followers  of  the 
Prophet,  and  there  is  but  little  drunkenness. 

There  are  notable  structures  in  Constantinople.  The 
Mosque  of  St.  Sophia  was  at  first  a  Christian  edifice, 
built  by  a  Roman  emperor  more  than  thirteen  centuries 
ago.  About  the  mosque  the  Turks  have  erected  tall 
minarets  which  officials,  called  muezzins,  ascend  five 
times  a  day  to  call  the  people  to  prayer.  The  people 
then  fall  upon  their  knees  and  bow  their  heads  with 


168 


EUROPE 


their  faces  toward  Mecca,  an  Asiatic  city  which  is  re- 
garded as  the  Holy  City  of  the  Mohammedans  because 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed.  There  are  nearly 
five  hundred  Turkish  churches,  or  mosques,  in  Stamboul 
and  nearly  a  thousand  minarets. 


A  School  in  Constantinople 

The  climate  at  Constantinople  is  very  agreeable  and 
the  natural  surroundings  are  beautiful.  There  are 
deliglitful  resorts  along  the  shores  of  the  Bosporus. 
One  of  these,  on  the  European  side,  is  called  the 
"  Sweet  Waters  of  Europe,"  and  another,  on  the 
opposite  shore,  the  "  Sweet  Waters  of  Asia." 

1.  What  countries  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  border  on  Turlcey? 

2.  What  large  bodies  of  water  border  on  Turkey? 

3.  Find  how  many  European  cities  are  larger  than  Constantinople. 


SMALLER   BALKAN   COUNTRIES  169 

4.  Wliy  would  it  be  a  special  advantage  to  Russia  to  obtain  possession 
of  Constantinople? 

5.  How  would  the  market  for  the  crops  of  southern  Russia  be  affected 
if  Russian  ships  were  not  permitted  to  pass  through  the  Bosporus? 

6.  How  far  is  it  across  the  Black  Sea,  from  Constantinople  to  Odessa? 

7.  Many  hides  and  sheepskins  are  exported  from  rfalonica.     In  what 
part  of  Turkey  is  it? 

8.  Adrianople  is  an  important  to\TO.     In  what  direction  from  Constan- 
tinople is  it? 

9.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  showing  its  mountains  and 
rivers  and  the  bodies  of  water  around  it. 


26.    Smaller  Balkan  Countries 

Besides  Turkey,  there  are  now  five  small  countries,  or 
states,  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula.  They  are  Roumania, 
Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro,  and  Greece.  All  these 
have  had  a  sad  history  and  have  passed  through  many 
struggles  before  relieving  themselves  from  Turkish 
oppression. 

Roumania  and  Bulgaria  are  the  largest  of  these  states 
and  by  nature  the  most  favored  with  sources  of  wealth. 
Both  of  them  have,  for  a  long  time,  been  partially 
independent  of  Turkey.  Roumania  became  entirely  so 
in  1878  and  Bulgaria  in  1909.  A  large  proportion  of 
the  people  were  once  serfs,  like  the  peasants  of  Russia, 
and  are  backward  in  their  methods  of  agriculture.  The 
fertile  plain  of  the  valley  of  the  Danube  River  reaches 
across  portions  of  both  countries,  and  large  crops  of 
wheat  and  corn  are  produced.  Roumania  is  one  of  the 
leading  countries  of  Europe  in  the  production  of  grain. 
Near  the  center  of  Bulgaria  there  is  a  noted  warm 
valley,  called  the  "  Valley  of  Roses,"  in  which  a  great 
amount  of  the  perfume,  attar  of  roses,  is  produced. 

Servia  also  is  a  very  fertile  country  and  produces 


170 


EUROPE 


much  corn  and  wheat.  Among  its  beech  and  oak 
forests  many  swine  are  raised.  Tliese  are  kept  in  the 
woods  where  they  feed  upon  beechnuts  and  acorns. 

The  people  of 
the  small  coun- 
try of  Montenegro 
have  had  a  most 
tragic  history. 
They  once  occu- 
pied a  much  lar- 
ger territory,  but 
little  by  little 
they  were  obliged 
to  surrender  the 
most  fertile  por- 
tions of  their 
land  to  the  Turks, 
who  finally  drove 
them  back  to  the 
mountains.  The 
name      Montene- 


A  Roumanian  Inn 


gYO, 


which  means 


"Black  Moun- 
tain," is  very  ap- 
propriate. The  land  is  so  rugged  and  stony  that  it  is 
suitable  only  for  pasture,  and  the  people  get  their  living 
mostly  by  stock-raising  and  fishing.  Wherever  there 
is  sufficient  soil,  little  vegetable  gardens  are  cultivated. 
The  soil  is  valued  so  highly  that  often  stone  walls  are 
built  to  prevent  it  from  being  washed  away  by  the  rain. 
The  Montenegrins  are  proud  of  their  independence, 


SMALLER  BALKAN  COUNTRIES 


171 


and  prefer  freedom  in  these  barren  mountains  to  sub- 
jection to  a  foreign  power  under  easier  conditions.  The 
necessity  of  fighting  frequently  against  the  Turks 
has  kept  the  little  country  prepared  for  war.  For  hun- 
dreds of  years  the  men  have  regarded  it  as  their  chief 


BBBBHIjW^llBlpBMs-s*. 

^^"^'"^m^A^^SA 

BB^BBBKBBP^'^^ffi^^^l^^B 

Athens 

business  to  protect  their  families  from  the  Turks ;  hence 
most  of  the  hard  work  is  done  by  the  women.  It  is  the 
ambition  of  every  boy  to  become  a  soldier  like  his  father. 

Cettinje,  the  capital  of  Montenegro,  is  a  mere  village 
surrounded  by  mountains.  Several  tiuies  the  Turks 
have  succeeded  in  reaching  the  capital,  but  the  Monte- 
negrins have  always  driven  them  out.  On  one  occasion 
a  little  army  of  eight  thousand  brave  Montenegrins 
defeated  an  army  of  sixty  thousand  Turks. 

Greece,  which  consists  of  the  southern   end  of  the 


172  EUROPE 

peninsula  cand  many  neighboring  islands,  is  not  very 
important  in  the  matter  of  industries  or  wealth,  but  it 
will  always  hold  a  prominent  place  in  the  thoughts  and 
feelings  of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  often  called  the 
"Cradle  of  our  Civilization."  Mankind  has  advanced 
by  gradual  stages,  each  generation  profiting  by  whatever 
was  great  and  good  in  earlier  generations.  The  Greeks 
were  the  wisest  and  most  learned  people  of  ancient 
times.  We  still  study  the  writings  of  their  great  men, 
such  as  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotle,  and  the  fragments 
of  their  works  of  art  are  the  most  valuable  models  from 
which  we  copy. 

Doubtless  the  sunny  climate,  with  its  clear  atmos- 
phere and  charming  views  of  mountains  and  sea,  had 
much  to  do  with  rendering  a  country  with  so  few 
natural  resources  the  cherished  home  of  a  highly  culti- 
vated people.  Moreover,  Greece  was  well  situated  for 
carrying  on  trade  among  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  On  account  of  numerous  gulfs  and 
bays  no  section  is  remote  from  the  sea,  and  this  nearness 
to  the  water  made  the  seafaring  life  naturally  attractive. 
The  Greeks  became  a  great  commercial  nation,  and  this 
helped  to  spread  the  benefits  of  their  culture  over  the 
world.  At  the  present  time  many  Greek  sailors  are 
engaged  in  carrying  on  commerce  between  the  ports  of 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Mediterranean. 

In  the  year  1830,  through  the  assistance  of  several 
nations  of  Europe,  Greece  became  independent  of 
Turkey,  and  since  that  time  its  condition  has  greatly 
improved.  The  country  contains  no  coal  or  water 
power.     It  is  south  of  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  and 


SMALLER  BALKAN  COUNTRIES 


173 


the  rainfall  in  summer  is  not  generally  sufficient  for 
successful  agriculture  without  irrigation.  Many  Greek 
shepherds  care  for  herds  of  sheep  and  goats. 

The  cultivated  crops  include  many  fruits.  A  large 
quantity  of  a  variety  of  very  small  grapes,  which  we  com- 
monly call  currants,  are  raised  and  dried,  and  these  con- 
stitute a  large  part  of  the  exports  of  the  country.     In  the 


mmiw 


Ruins  of  the  Acropolis,  Athens 

southern  part  of  Greece,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Corinth,  the  country  is  covered  with  vines  from  which 
these  grapes  are  gathered. 

The  ancient  Greeks  made  much  account  of  honey 
from  Mt.  Hymettus,  and  honey  from  the  same  mountain 
is  still  common  in  Greek  markets. 

Athens,  the  capital  and  largest  city  of  Greece,  was 
one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  ancient  times.  It  was 
the  great  center  of  learning  and  fine  arts  for  the  Greek 
people  and  for  the  world.  The  city  still  contains  won- 
derful ruins,  that  give  some  idea  of  its  past  glory. 


174  EUROPE 

The  most  conspicuous  part  of  Athens  is  the  Acropolis, 
a  lofty  mass  of  rock  four  hundred  feet  wide  and  a  thou- 
sand feet  long.  Since  its  walls  are  nearly  perpendicular 
on  three  sides,  it  forms  a  natural  fortress.  It  was 
probably  because  it  could  be  easily  defended  that  it  was 
selected  as  a  stronghold  by  the  ancients  and  became  the 
origin  of  a  city.  Upon  the  Acropolis  the  most  beautiful 
and  sacred  temples  were  erected.  The  ruins  of  one,  the 
Parthenon,  are  famous  throughout  the  world.  Although 
Athens  has  no  large  business  interests  to  cause  a  growth 
in  its  population,  the  associations  of  the  past  render  it 
so  attractive  that  it  is  continually  increasing  in  size. 
In  three  fourths  of  a  century  it  has  grown  from  a  town 
with  a  population  of  a  few  hundreds  to  a  city  of  over 
one  hundred  thousand  people.  It  now  has  a  university 
of  over  a  thousand  students,  to  which  scholars  are 
attracted  from  all  parts  of  the  world. 

1.  What  mountains  and  rivers  form  the  greater  part  of  the  boundary 
of  Roumania? 

2.  What  countries  border  on  Bulgaria? 

3.  Name  and  locate  the  capitals  of  Roumania  and  Bulgaria. 

4.  What  countries  border  on  Servia? 

5.  What  city  is  the  capital  of  Servia,  and  why  has  it  a  good  location? 

6.  How  does  Montenegro  compare  with  Belgium  in  area  and 
population? 

7.  On  what  waters  would  a  vessel  sail  in  a  voyage  from  London  to 
Piraeus,  the  port  of  Athens? 

8.  So  little  wheat  is  raised  in  Greece  that  a  large  part  of  the  supply 
is  imported.    Suggest  a  country  from  which  it  may  be  obtained. 

9.  The  island  of  Crete  was  partially  separated  from  Turkey  in  1898 
and  placed  under  the  protection  of  Greece.  Its  people  are  mainly  Greeks. 
Where  is  it  situated  ? 

10.  Sketch  a  map  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  showing  the  boundaries 
of  the  countries  and  the  chief  cities. 


REVIEW 


175 


Review    • 

1.  Of  whom  are  the  present  Italians  descendants? 

2.  Give  a  brief  history  of  Italy. 

3.  Describe  the  physical  features  of  the  country. 

4.  Why  are  dikes  necessary  on  the  banks  of  the  Po  River? 

5.  Why  is  the  climate  of  Italy  free  from  extremes  of  heat  and  cold? 

6.  Tell  about  the  rainfall  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 

7.  Tell  about  the 
industry  of  agriculture. 

8.  Explain       how 
olive  oil  is  produced. 

9.  How  is  maca- 
roni prepared? 

10.  What  kind  of 
power  have  the  Italians 
for  manufacturing? 

11.  Name  articles 
which  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  make. 

12.  Where  is  sul- 
phur obtained? 

13.  Tell  about  Ital- 
ian marble. 

14.  Why  are  many 
Italians  very  poor? 

15.  To  w^hat  coun- 
tries do  many  emi- 
grate? 

16.  Why  is  Rome 
called  "  The  Eternal 
City"? 

17.  Describe  the 
Colosseum. 

18. 
19. 
20. 


Harvesting  Grapes 


Tell  about  the  Roman  Forum. 

Describe  St.  Peter's  Cathedral  and  the  Vatican. 

Give  an  account  of  the  origin  of  Venice. 

21.  Describe  the  city  of  Venice. 

22.  Give  interesting  facts  about  the  city  of  Florence. 

23.  Describe  the  largest  city  of  Italy. 

24.  Tell  about  the  volcano  of  Vesuvius. 

25.  Describe  a  volcanic  eruption. 


176  EUROPE 

I 

26.  Give  an  account  of  the  Messina  earthquake. 

27.  Tell  about  the  city  of  Milan.  , 

28.  For  what  is  Genoa  noted? 

29.  Tell  about  the  people  of  Austria-Hungary.  t 

30.  What  was  the  cause  of  such  a  mixture  of  different  peoples?  I 

31.  What  tends  to  keep  them  united  in  one  nation?  '| 

32.  Explain  the  government  of  Austria-Hungary.  J 

33.  Tell  about  the  Magyars.  j 

34.  Describe  the  scenery  of  the  country'.  j 

35.  Why  is  the  Danube  River  a  great  advantage?  1 

36.  What  are  the  chief  agricultural  products?  I 

37.  Why  has  not  manufacturing  developed  in  Austria-Hungary?  j 

38.  Tell  about  the  city  of  Vienna.  j 

39.  Describe  the  city  of  Budapest.  | 

40.  Why  is  not  the  port  of  Trieste  of  very  great  advantage  to  the  i 
country?                                                                                                                                           i 

41.  Tell  about  the  size  of  Russia.  i 

42.  Describe  the  physical  features  of  European  Russia.  j 

43.  Tell  about  the  Caspian  Sea.  ' 

44.  Explain  the  climate  of  Russia.  I 

45.  Tell  about  the  different  sections,  or  belts,  of  the  country  in  order, 
from  north  to  south. 

46.  Tell  about  the  early  history  of  the  Russians.  ■■ 

47.  How  great  is  the  population  of  Russia? 

48.  Explain  the  condition  of  Russian  peasants.  ] 

49.  Tell  about  the  troubles  in  the  government  of  Russia. 

50.  Why  have  many  Russian  Jews  emigrated  to  America? 

51.  Tell  about  the  conditions  in  Finland.  ' 

52.  Tell  about  the  country  of  Poland. 

53.  Where  are  the  richest  farming  and  grazing  regions  of  Russia? 

54.  What  are  some  of  the  crops  of  the  country?  j 

55.  Tell  about  the  farms  of  the  peasants. 

56.  Why  are  agricultural  improvements  slow  in  Russia? 

57.  Describe  the  arid  steppes.  i 

58.  Tell  about  Russian  forests.  ] 

59.  Tell  about  the  minerals  of  Russia. 

60.  Where  is  Russian  petroleum  obtained? 

61.  Explain  the  location  of  the  city  of  Moscow. 

62.  Describe  the  objects  of  interest  in  the  Kremlin. 

63.  Give  an  account  of  the  origin  of  St.  Petersburg.  I 

64.  Give  interesting  facts  about  St.  Petersburg.  ' 

65.  Tell  about  the  port  of  Odessa.  ' 

66.  Tell  about  fairs  in  Russia. 


REVIEW 


177 


67.  Why  are  there  several  countries  in  the  Balkan  Peninsvila? 

68.  Give  a  brief  history  of  the  people  of  this  peninsula. 

69.  Tell  about  the  Turks. 

70.  Why  has  the  bad   government  of  the  Turks  been  permitted   to 
continue  ? 

71.  Give  an  ac- 
count of  the  recent 
revolution  in  Tur- 
key. 

72.  Why  have 
not  irfdustries  in 
Turkey  been  de- 
veloped? 

73.  Tell  about 
the  history  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

74.  Explain 
the  favorable  loca- 
tion of  that  city. 

75.  What  are 
the  three  principal 
sections  of  the 
city? 

76.  Describe 
the  Turkish  sec- 
tion. 

77.  Tell  about 
Mohammedan 
mosques  and  min- 
arets. 

78.  What  are  the  natural  attractions  of  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople ': 

79.  Name  the  smaller  states  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula. 

80.  Tell  about  Roumania  and  Bulgaria. 

81.  What  are  the  industries  of  Servia? 

82.  Why  have  the  Montenegrins  such  a  small  country? 

83.  How  do  they  obtain  a  living? 

84.  Tell  about  their  struggles  against  the  Turks. 

85.  Why  is  Greece  called  the  "Cradle  of  our  Civilization"? 

86.  Why  did  the  ancient  Greeks  become  a  great  commercial  nation? 

87.  Tell  about  the  climate  of  Greece. 

88.  Mention  some  of  the  products  of  the  country. 

89.  Describe  the  city  of  Athens. 


Market  at  Moscow 


APPENDIX 


Area  and  Population 

The  figures  for  population  are  aci-ordiug  to  the  uiost  recent  census  or  estimate. 


Area,  in 

ropii-A- 

Area  ik 

POI'ITLA- 

Sq.  Mr. 

TION 

Sq.  Mi. 

TKIN 

Austria-Hungary 

261,294 

47,153,000 

Montenegro 

3,030 

250,000 

Belgium 

li,:373 

6,693,548 

Netherlands 

12,(548 

5,747,269 

British  Isles 

121,391 

41,976,827 

Norway 

124,130 

2,330,364 

Bulgaria 

37,320 

4,035,623 

Portugal 

35,490 

5.432,132 

Denmark 

15,592 

2,605,268 

Rumania 

50,720 

6,684,265 

England  and  Wales 

58,324 

32,527,843 

Russia  in  Europe 

1,976,586 

111,279,500 

France 

207,054 

39,252,245 

Scotland 

30,405 

4.472,103 

German  Empire 

208,780 

60,641,278 

Servia 

18,650 

2,(588,025 

Greece 

25,014 

2,631.952 

Spain 

190,050 

19,712,585 

Iceland 

39,75(5 

78,470 

Sweden 

172,87(5 

5,377,713 

Ireland 

32,360 

4,458,775 

Switzerland 

15,97(5 

3,325,000 

Italy 

110,550 

33,910,000 

Cit 

Turkey  in  Europe 

ies 

65,350 

6,130,200 

Aberdeen,  Scotland 

143,722 

Bristol,  England 

372,785 

Adrianople,  Turkey 

81,000 

Bruges,  Belgium 

53,281 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands 

565,65(5 

Brussels,  Belgium 

629,917 

Antwerp,  Belgium 

310,903 

Bucharest,  Rumania 

276,178 

Athens,  Greece 

167,479 

Budapest,  Austria-Hungary 

732,322 

Barcelona,  Spain 

533,000 

Cadiz,  Spain 

(59,382 

Basel,  Switzerland 

129,470 

Calais,  France 

66,627 

Belfast,  England 

349,180 

Cambridge,  England 

120,264 

Belgrade,  Servia 

77,816 

Cardiff,  Wales 

191,446 

Bergen,  Norway 

72,251 

Cartagena,  Spain 

99,871 

Berlin,  Germany 

2,040,148 

Catania,  Italy 

150,000 

Bern,  Switzerland 

74,(i5l 

Cettinje,  Montenegro 

4,500 

Birmingham,  England 

558,357 

Chemnitz,  Germai 

y 

244,927 

Bologna,  Italy 

152,009 

Christiania,  Norw 

ly 

227,626 

Bordeaux,  France 

251,917 

Cologne,  Germany 

428,722 

Bradford,  England 

292,136 

Constantinople,  Turkey 

1,106,000 

Bremen,  Germany 

214,861 

Copenhagen,  Denmark 

426,540 

Breslau,  Germany 

470,904 

Cordoba,  Spain 

58,275 

178 


APPENDIX 


179 


Cork,  Ireland  7(5,122 

Danzig,  Germany  15i),()48 

Dresden,  Gerniany  51(5, {t!H) 

Dublin,  Ireland  2iK),6:iS 

Dundee,  Scotland  100,871 

Edinburgh,  Scotland  350,524 

Essen,  Germany  231,3()0 

Florence,  Italy  20<),000 

Fraukfort,  Germany  ;m,978 

Geneva,  Switzerland  11S,25() 

Genoa,  Italy  234,710 

Ghent,  Belgium  1(>4,117 

Glasgow,  Scotland  859,715 

Gothenburg,  Sweden  100,523 

Granada,  Spain  75,900 

Haarlem,  Netherlands  70,152 

Hague,  The,  Netherlands  254,505 

Hamburg,  Germany  802,793 

Hanover,  Germany  250,024 

Havre,  France  132,430 

Helsingfors,  Finland  117,317 

Hull,  England  241,000 

Kiel,  Germany  103,772 

Kiev,  Russia  319,000 

Konigsberg,  Germany  223,770 

Leeds,  England  477,107 

Leghyrn,  Italy  98,000 

Leicester,  England  240,172 

Leipzig,  Germany  503,072 

Liege,  Belgium  173,939 

Lille,  France  205,002 

Limerick,  Ireland  38,151 

Limoges,  France  88,597 

Lisbon,  Spain  :«G,000 

Liverpool,  England  753,203 

Lodz,  Russia  351,570 

London,  England  4,795,757 

London  (Greater)  7,323,570 

Londonderry,  Ireland  39,892 

Lucerne,  Switzerland  35,433 

Lyons,  France  472,114 

Madrid,  Spain  539,835 

Magdeburg,  Germany  240,033 

Malaga,  Spain  130,109 

Manchester,  England  049,251 


Marseilles,  France  517,498 

Mechlin,  Belgium  59,107 

Messina,  Italy  150,000 

Milan,  Italy  493,241 

Moscow,  Russia  1,359,254 

Munich,  Germany  538,983 

Naples,  Italy  503,540 

Newcastle,  England  277,257 

Nice,  France  131,232 

Nijni  Novgorod,  Russia  5)0,053 

Nottingham,  England  200,449 

Nuremberg,  Germany  294,426 

Odessa,  Russia  449,673 

Oporto,  Portugal  167,955 

Ostend,  Belgium  42,409 

Oxford,  England  51,<)00 

Paisley,  Scotland  f)0,305 

Palermo,  Italy  309,0iV4 

Paris,  France  2,703,393 

Pirseus,  Greece  71,505 

Pisa,  Italy  61,321 

Portsmouth,  England  211,493 

Prague,  Austria-Hungary  228,045 

Rheims,  France  108,000 

Riga,  Russia  282,230 

Rome,  Italy  462,743 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands  403,350 

Roubaix,  France  121,017 

Rouen,  France  118,459 

St.  Etienne,  France  140,788 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia  1,078,000 

Salonica,  Turkey  150,000 

Seville,  Spain  148,315 

Southampton,  England  122,19(; 

Stettin,  Germany  224,119 

Stockholm,  Sweden  337,400 

Strassburg,  Germany  107,<)78 

Stuttgart,  Germany  249,280 

Trieste,  Austria-Hungary  205,130 

Trondhjem,  Norway  38,180 

Valencia,  Spain  213,530 

Venice,  Italy  151,840 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary  1,999,912 

Warsaw.  Russia  750,420 

Zurich,  Switzerland  187,000 


180 


Mt.  Elljurz,  Russia 
Mt.  Blane,  France 
Monte  Rosa,  Italy 


Volga,  Russia 
Danube,  Austria-Hungary 
Dnieper,  Russia 
Dwiua,  Russia 


APPENDIX 

Mountains 

IlEIOllT  IN 

Height  in 

Fekt 

Feet 

18,493 

Mt.  Etna,  Sicily 

10,f)00 

15,781 

Mt.  Olympus,  Turkey 

9,740 

15,210 

Mt.  Vesuvius,  Italy 

4,200 

Rivers 

Len,;tii  in 

Length  in 

Miles 

Miles 

2,400 

Rhine,  Germany 

800 

1,770 

Elbe,  Germany 

725 

1,200 

Rhone,  France 

500 

1,000 

Seine,  France 

480 

INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


KEY    TO    PRONUNCIATK^N 

rt,  as  in  fat ;  a,  as  in  fate  ;  «,  as  in  far  ;  d,,  as  in  fall ;  e,  as  in  pen  ;  e,  as 
in  mete ;  e,  as  in  her  ;  i,  as  in  pin ;  I,  as  in  pine  ;  o,  as  in  7iot ;  o,  as  in  note ; 
o,  as  in  move  ;  ?(,  as  in  tub ;  u,  as  in  mute  ;  u,  as  in  2iull ;  r/,  as  in  get ;  (/.  as 
in  fjem  ;  r,  as  in  cat ;  r,  as  in  cent. 

A  double  dot  under  a  or  o  (a,  o)  indicates  tliat  its  sound  is  shortened  to 
tliat  of  ?t  in  but. 

Italicized  letters  are  silent.  The  sign  '  tells  upon  which  syllable  the  ac- 
cent is  placed.     The  numbers  refer  to  pages  in  the  book. 


Ab-er-deen',  37. 

A-crop'-o-li.s,  173,  174. 

Ad-ri-an-op'-le,  169. 

Ad-ri-at'-ic  Sea,  142. 

vle-ge'-an  Sea,  7. 

Al-ca'-ziir,  79. 

Al-ham'-bra,  69. 

Al-mii-den',  79. 

Alps  Mountains,  2,  114,  115,  117. 

Al'-torf,  116. 

Am'-ster-dam,  61,  02,  63. 

Angles  (ang'-glz),  14. 

Ant'-werp,  66,  67. 

Ap'-en-nine.s,  125. 

ArcA-an'-gel,  160. 

Arc'-tic  Current,  5. 

Ar'-is-totle,  172. 

Arl'-berg  Tunnel,  118. 

Ath'-ens,  173. 

At'-tar  of  roses,  50,  109. 

AHs'-tri-a,  139. 

A?<s'-tri-a-Hun'-ga-ry,  12,  139. 

A  ?f  s'-lri-ans,  141. 

Ayr,  34. 


Az'-of,  Sea  of,  7. 
A-zores'  (zorz),  74. 

Ba'-den-Ba'-den,  113. 

Ba-ku'  (ko),  155,  100. 

Bal-e-ar'-ic  Islands,  74. 

Bal-kiin'  Mountains,  7. 

Biil-kan'  Peninsula,  161,  169. 

Bal'-tic  Sea,  96. 

Bank  of  England,  29. 

Biir-^e-lo'-na,  78. 

Ba-tum'  (torn),  160. 

Ba-va'-ri-a,  101. 

Beets,  sugar,  47,  93,  107. 

Bel'-fast,  40. 

Bel'-gi-um,  63. 

Bel-grade',  85. 

Ben  Nev'-is,  37. 

Ber'-gen,  90. 

Ber-lin',  101,  111. 

Berne,  121. 

Birmingham  (ber'-ming-am),  .30. 

Bis'-cay,  Bay  of,  7. 

Black  Fore.st,  110,  113. 


181 


182    INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Black  Sea,  6,  142,  100. 
Bo-he'-mi-a,  145. 
B6-he'-ini-ans,  12. 
Bordeaux  (bor-do'),  54. 
Bos'-po-rus,  165,  KiT. 
Both'-ni-a,  Gulf  of,  7. 
Brad'-ford,  32. 
Brem'-en,  112. 
Bres'-lau  (lou),  114. 
Brest,  55. 

Brindisi  (bren'-de-se),  138. 
Bris'-tol,  32. 
Brit'-ish  colonies,  24. 
Brit'-ish  Empire,  13. 
Brit'-ish  Isles,  13,  14,  15,  16,  Y, 
Brit'-ish  manufactures,  19,  20. 
Bruges  (bro'-jez),  68. 
Brus'-sels,  67,  68. 
Bucharest  (bo-ka-resf),  85. 
Bu'-da-pest  (bo),  144. 
Bul-ga'-ri-a,  12,  169. 
Bul-ga'-ri-ans,  162. 


Ca'-diz,  79. 

Cam'-bri-an  Mountains,  15. 

Cam'-brifZge,  32. 

Cam-pa-ni'-le  (ne),  134. 

Canals,  Dutch,  56,  57,  58,  59, 

Ca-na'-ry  Islands,  74. 

Can '-tons,  116. 

Cape  Verde  Islands,  74. 

Ciir'-dif/,  32. 

Carls'-bad,  145. 

Car'-o-llne  Islands,  106, 

Car-pa'-thi-an  Mountains,  152. 

Car-ta-ge'-na,  80. 

Cas'-pi-an  Sea,  146,  147,  155. 

Caif-ca'-sia  (sha),  155. 

Caw-ca'-sian  (shan)  Race,  6,  12,  14. 

Ca?t'-ca-sus  Mountains,  2,  152. 

gelts,  14,  15. 

Cettinje  (chet-ten'-ya),  171. 

Cevennes  (sa-ven')  Mountains,  15. 


Champs    Elys^es     (shon'-za-le-za'), 

52,  53. 
Chan'-nel  Islands,  24. 
Charcoal,  92. 
Chem'-nitz,  114. 
Cherbourg  (sher'-berg),  55. 
Chev'-i-ot  Hills,  15. 
Christiania  (kris-te-a'-ne-a) ,  84,  88, 

90. 
Christianity,  9. 
Climate,  2,  4,  11,  18. 
Clyde  (klid),  35. 
Coal,  20,  21,  35,  109. 
Codfish,  87. 
Co-\bgne',  112,  113. 
Col-os-se'-um,  131,  138. 
Co'-mo,  Lake,  124. 
Con-stan-ti-no'-ple,  162, 163, 164, 165, 

166,  167,  168. 
Co-pen-ha'-gen,  97. 
Copper,  77,  92,  109. 
Cor'-do-ba,  79. 
Cor'-inth,  173. 
Cork,  41,  77. 
Cor'-si-ca,  7. 
Cor'-tez,  78. 
Crete,  174. 
Currants,  173. 
Currents,  ocean,  3,  4, 
Czar,  148,  149,  150. 


Danes,  11,  14,  97. 

Dan'-te,  134. 

Dan'-ube  River,  9,  140,  142,  169. 

Dar-da-neUes',  85. 

Den'-mark,  82,  95, 

Diamonds,  62. 

Dikes,  56. 

Dnieper  (ne'-pcr)  River,  146. 

Doge  (doj),  133. 

Do'-ver,  15. 

Do'-ver,  Strait  of,  44. 

Dres'-den  (drez),  110,  112. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY     183 


l^ub'-liii,  41. 
Dutch,  11,  (iO. 

F^au  de  Cologne  (o  de  ktj-lun'),  AO. 
Hdiuburgh  (cd'-n-bur-o).  :!•'). 
Ehrenbreitstfiu        (fi-reii-bnt'-stln), 

10"),  10(5. 
Ehrenfels  (a'-ren-fels),  104. 
Eiffel  (i'-fel)  Tower,  53. 
Elbe  (el'-ba)  Kiver,  106,  112. 
El-burz  (el'-borz),  Mt.,  153. 
Ellen's  Isle,  30. 
England  (ing'-land),  13,  14,  17,  18, 

19,  31. 
English  (ing'-li.sh),  11,  18. 
Es'-sen,  113. 
Et'-na,  Mt.,  129. 
Eurasia  (ii-ra'-she-a),  1. 

Fa'-roe  Islands,  98. 

Finisterre  (ti-nis-tar'),  lo. 

Fin'-land,  152. 

Finns,  12. 

Firth,  37. 

Firth  of  Forth,  33. 

Fjords  (fyords),  83,  84,  89. 

Flax,  40,  04,  05,  153. 

Flem'-ings,  65. 

Flor'enge,  134. 

Forests,  86,  87,  96,  107,  110,  143,  15-1 

Fo'-rum,  131,  132. 

France,  12,  44. 

Frankfort  (frangk'-fc;rt),  114. 

French,  12. 

French  manufactures,  48,  49. 

French  Revolution,  45. 


Git'-la-tii,  100. 
Gal'-way,  15. 
Gauls,  45. 
Ge-ne'-va,  120. 
Ge-ne'-va,  Lake,  120. 
Gen'-o-a,  138. 
Ger'-man  Empire,  100. 


Ger'-mans,  11.  101. 

Ger'-ma-ny,  12,  9!). 

Ghent,  67. 

(ii-bral'-tar,  79,  80. 

Giotto  (jot'-to),  134. 

Gla'-cier  (shier),  2,  17. 

Ghvs'-goio,  35,  36. 

Golden  Horn,  165. 

Gon-do-ber',  133. 

Got/i'-en-burg  (biirg),  95. 

Goths,  68,  94. 

Gram'-pi-an  Hills,  15. 

Gra-na'-da,  69,  70,  79. 

Grasse,  49,  50. 

Great  Britain  (brit'-n),  12,  13,  26. 

Greece  (gres),  169,  171,  172, 173,  174. 

Greeks,  6,  8,  12. 

Green'-Iand,  98. 

Greenwich  (grin'-ij),  32. 

Gulf  Stream,  4. 

Gypsies,  139. 

Uague,  61,  62. 
Ham'-burg  (berg),  112. 
Hiim'-mer-fest,  88,  8i). 
Has'-lev,  96,  98. 
Havre  (a'-vr),  53,  55. 
Ileb'-ri-des,  7. 
Hec'-la,  Mt.,  7. 
Hel'-sing-fors,  151. 
Hemp,  153. 

Her-cu-la'-ne-um,  135,  136. 
Highlands,  Scottish,  15,  33,  36. 
Hol'-land,  55,  56,  57. 
House  of  Commons,  19,  29. 
House  of  Lords,  19,  29. 
Houses  of  rar'-li«-ment,  29. 
Hull,  32. 

llun-ga'-ri-ans,  141. 
Hun'-ga-ry,  139,  142. 
Ily-met'-tus  (hi),  Mt.,  173. 

T<;r''-lan(l,  9S. 

Ice  Sheet,  2,  17,  90. 


184     INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Innsbruch  (ins'-brijk),  145. 

Ire'-land,  13,  37. 

I'-rish  Sea,  15. 

Iron,  20,  21,  35,  92,  109. 

Irrigation,  75,  120. 

Isle  of  Man,  15. 

Isle  of  Wight  (wit),  15. 

It-al'-ians  (yans),  12. 

It'-a-ly,  12,  124. 

Ivan  (e-van')  Tower,  157. 

Jews,  Eussian,  151. 

Jura  (jo'-ra)  Mountains,  114. 

Jute,  37. 

Jut'-land,  96. 

Ivra'-ser,  101. 

K«i-ser  Wilhelm   (vil'-helm)   Canal, 

106. 
Kerosene,  160. 
Kiel  (kel),  106,  114. 
Kiev  (ke'-ev),  146. 
KiZ-lar'-ney  Lakes,  41. 
Kongo  (kong'-go)  State,  05. 
Ko'-ran,  69,  166,  167. 
Krem'-lin,  157. 

Kreuznach  (kroits'-nak),  109. 
Kron-stadt  (kron'-stat),  145. 
Krupp  (krcip)  works,  113. 

Lab-ra-dor'  Current,  5. 

La-drone'  Islands,  106. 

Land  Act,  39. 

Land's  End,  15. 

Lap'-land,  87. 

Lapps,  12,  87,  88. 

Lead,  109. 

Leeds  (ledz),  30. 

Leipzig  (llp'-tsig),  113. 

Lemons,  47. 

Leonardo   da   Mnci  (la-o-na'-do   dii 

vin'-che),  134. 
Liege  (lyazh),  67. 
Lille  (lei),  55. 


Lim'-er-ick,  15. 
Limoges  (le-mozh'),  54,  55. 
Linen,  40. 
Lis'-bon,  79. 
Liv'-er-pool,  31,  32. 
Loch  Kat'-rine,  36. 
Loch  Lo'-mond,  36. 
Lodz,  160. 

Lo-fo'-den  Islands,  87. 
Lon'-don,  25,  26,  27,  28,  29. 
Lon'-don-der-ry,  15. 
Lo'-re-lei,  105. 
Louvre  (lovr),  52. 
Lowlands,  Scottish,  33. 
Lumber,  86,  91. 
Lyons  (ll'-onz),  58. 
Lys  (les)  Iliver,  65. 

Macaroni,  128. 

Ma-dei'-ra  Lslands,  74. 

Ma-drid',  77,  78. 

Magdeburg  (mag'-de-biirg),  113. 

Mag'-yars,  12,  141. 

Maui  River,  85. 

Mal'-a-ga,  70. 

Mai'-ta,  7. 

Man'-ches-ter,  30. 

Man'-che.s-ter  Canal,  30. 

Marble,  Italian,  129. 

Mar'-mo-ra,  Sea  of,  165. 

Marseilles  (mar-salz'),  54. 

Matches,  91. 

Mec'-ca,  168. 

Mechlin  (mek'-lin),  68. 

Med-i-ter-ra'-ne-an  Sea,  7. 

Messina  (mes-se'-na),  137. 

Michelangelo  (niT-kel-an'-je-lo),  132, 

134. 
Middle  Ages,  10. 
Mi-lan',  137,  138. 
Min'-a-rets,  167. 
M6-ham'-med,  69,  167,  168. 
Mo-ham'-wied-ans,  69,  168. 
Mont  Blanc  (mon  blon),  50,  121. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY     185 


MontCenis  (mon  se-ne'),  118. 
Montenegro    (mon-te-na'-gro),    KiO, 

170,  171. 
Miiors,  Gi),  70,  75. 
Mos'-coio,  150. 
Mosques  (mosks),  108. 
Mu-ez'-dn,  107. 
Mulberry  trees,  47,  53. 
Mu'-nic/t,  114. 
Mus'-.sul-uian,  lOG. 

Na'-ples  (plz),  184,  135,  136. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  45,  63. 

Neth'-er-lands,  55. 

Ne-va'  Kiver,  158. 

Nevski  (nefs'-ki)  Pms-pekt',  159. 

Newcastle  (nu'-kas-l),  24. 

Nice  (nes),  40. 

Nijni  (nezh'-ni)  Nov'-go-rod,  100. 

Nor'-man-dy,  15. 

Nor'-nians,  15,  45. 

North  Cape,  89. 

Northmen,  15,  45. 

North  Sea,  90. 

Nor'-way,  82. 

Nor-we'-gians,  11,  84. 

Notre  Dame  (no'-tr  dam),  52. 

Nu'-rem-berg,  113,  114. 


Piir'-the-non,  174. 

I'eat,  40. 

I'era  (pa'-rJi),  100. 

Perfumery,  49,  50. 

Peter  the  Great,  148,  158. 

Pe-tro'-le-um,  155,  100. 

Pil'-grims,  5. 

Pl-r«e'-us,  174. 

Pisa  (pe'-za),  138. 

Piz-ar'-ro,  78. 

Place  de  la  Concorde  (plas  de  la  kon- 

kord'),  52. 
Platinum,  155. 
Pla'-to,  172. 
Po  River,  125. 
Po'-land,  152. 
Poles,  12. 

Pompeii  (poni-pa'-ye),  135. 
Pon'-te  Vecchio  (vek'-ke-o),  1.34. 
Por'-tu-gal,  08,  70,  70,  77. 
P6r'-tu-g?<ese,  12,  70,  71,  74. 
Potash  salts,  109. 
Prag?<e,  145. 
Prussia  (prush'-a),  101. 
Pyrenees  (pir'-e-nez),  2. 

Queens'-town.  41. 
Quicksilver,  77. 


Ocean  currents,  3,  4. 

O-des'-sa,  159. 

Olive  oil,  127. 

Olives,  47,  70. 

O-por'-to,  79. 

Oranges,  47. 

Orkney  (ork'-ni)  Islands,  7. 

Os-tend',  68. 

Ox'-ford,  32. 

Paisley  (paz'-li),  30. 
Pa-ler'-mo,  138. 
Pal-6s',  79. 
Par'-is,  51,  52. 
Par'-li«-ment,  19. 


Raphael  (ra'-fa-el),  112. 
Relc/is'-tag,  100. 
Reikiavik  (rik'-yii-vik),  99. 
Reindeer,  88. 
Rhine  River,  9. 
Rhone  River,  54. 
Ri-al'-to  (re),  133. 
Riviera  (re-ve-a'-rii),  49. 
Robert  Burns,  34. 
Ro'-man  Empire,  9. 
Ro'-mans,  8,  9,  11,  14. 
Rome,  8,  124,  131,  138. 
Rot'-<er-dam,  58,  01,  03. 
Rouen  (rO-on'),  54. 
Rou-ma'-ni-a,  109,  170. 


186     INDEX  AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Rubens  (ro'-benz),  0(). 

Russia  (rush'-a),  12,  140. 

Russians  (rush'-ans),  12. 

Rye,  108,  142. 

St.  Etienne  (san-ta-tyen'),  54. 

St.  Gotthard  (sankt  got'-hart),  118. 

St.  Isaac's,  159. 

St.  Mark's,  133. 

St.  Paul's,  27. 

St.  Peter's,  131,  132. 

St.   Pe'-ters-burg    (berg),    150,    158, 

159. 
St.  Sophia  (so-fe'-a),  Mosque  of,  107. 
St.  Vin'-gent,  Cape,  7,  15. 
Sal-o-ni'-ca  (ne),  109. 
Sar-din'-i-a,  17. 
Saxons  (sak'-snz),  14. 
Saxony  (sak'-sn-i),  101,  112. 
Scan-di-na'-vi-an,  98. 
Scot'-land,  13,  15,  17,  33. 
Seine  (san)  River,  46,  51,  53. 
Serfs,  149. 
Ser'-vi-a,  109. 
Ser'-vi-ans,  12,  102. 
Sev'-i\Ie,  71,  79. 
Shef'./ield,  31. 
Shet'-land  Islands,  37. 
Sicily  (sis'-i-li),  129,  137. 
Silk,  53,  127,  137. 
Silver,  77,  109. 

Simplon  (san-plau')  Tunnel,  118. 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  34. 
Sis'-tine  Ma-don'-«a,  112. 
Sla-von'-ic  tribes,  9,  12. 
Slavs,  148,  161,  162. 
Soc'-ra-tes,  172. 
Sofia  (so-fe'-a),  85. 
South-amp '-ton,  15. 
Spam,  08. 

Spaniards,  12,  71,  72,  73,  74. 
Spanish  Peninsula,  08. 
Stiim-boul'  (bol),  160,  167,  108. 
Stepj9es,  148,  154. 
Stet-tin'  (ten),  113. 


Stock'-holm,  94. 
Striiss'-burg  (borg),  114, 
Stuttgart  (stot'-gart) ,  114. 
Sulphur,  129. 
Sul'-tan,  164. 
Swe'-dgn,  82,  90. 
Svpedes,  11. 
Swit'-zer-land,  114. 

Tar'-tar  tribes,  157. 
Tenants,  Irish,  38. 
Tfiu-ton'-ic  tribes,  9,  12,  14,  99. 
Thames  (temz)  River,  25,  26. 
Tl'-ber  River,  138. 
Tif-lis'  (les),  100. 
Tin,  21,  109. 
To-le'-do,  79. 
Tower  of  London,  27. 
Toys,  109. 

Trans-Caw-ca'-sia  (sha),  100. 
Tran-syl-va'-ni-a,  141. 
Trieste  (tre-es'-te) ,  145. 
Trondhjem  (trond'-yem),  88. 
Tuileries  (tvye'-le-riz),  52. 
Tun'-dras,  148. 
Tu'-rin,  138. 
Turkey  (ter'-ki),  161. 
Turks,  144,  162,  163,  164. 
Tyne  (tin)  River,  15. 
Tyrol  (tir'-ol),  Austrian,  141. 

United  Kingdom,  13. 

Unter  (on'-ter)  den  Lin'-den,  111. 

Ural  (ii'-ral)  ]\lountains,  155. 

Val'-dal  Hills,  146. 
Va-len'-cia  (shia),  76. 
Vat'-i-can,  131,  132. 
Ven'-i^e,  132,  133. 
Versailles  (ver-salz'),  52. 
Ve-su'-vi-us  (so),  Mt.,  135,  136. 
Vi-en'-»ja,  143,  144. 
Vi'-kings,  84,  98. 
Vol'-ga  River,  160. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOC^ABULARY     187  | 

Wales  (walz),  13,  15.  AVilliain  tlie  Conqueror,  28.  I 

Walloons  (wo-li3uz'),  05.  Windnillls,  5(3,  5'.t.  j 

AVar'-saic,  160.  Wine,  47. 

Watches,  Swiss,  120,  121.  Wur'-tem-berg  (vur),  101.  ' 

Wa'-ter-loo,  03.  j 

Weser  (va'-zer)  Kiver,  112.  Yellow  Kace,  12.  I 

West'-min-ster  Ab'-bey,  27.  j 

Wheat,  47,  108.  142,  153.  Zinc,  92,  109.  I 

White  Race.  0.  Zurich  (zo'-rik),  120.  ' 

White  Sea.  7.  Zuy'-der  (zi)  Zee,  56. 
William  Tell.  110. 


YC  44078 


